1. The Collapse of the Liberal State and the Triumph of Fascism in Italy, 1896-1943
Mr E Walker

2. Assessment Objectives
AO1
a Recall, select and deploy historical knowledge appropriately, and communicate knowledge and understanding of history in a clear and effective manner.
b Demonstrate their understanding of the past though explanation, analysis and arriving at substantiated judgements of:
key concepts such as causation, consequence, continuity, change and significance within an historical
Context the relationships between key features andcharacteristics of the periods studied.
AO2
a As part of a historical enquiry, analyse and evaluate a
range of appropriate source material with discrimination.
b Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context,
how aspects of the past have been interpreted and
represented in different ways.

3. Assessment Unit 1; Historical Themes in breadth
Written examination: 1 hour 20 minutes.
Candidates must take one of the option papers A-F. Each option
paper will include seven topics, except for Option E which includes
six. Students are required to study two topics from the same
option paper.
Candidates will be required to answer two questions worth 30
marks each and these must be taken from different topics within
the same option paper. A choice of two essay questions will be set
on each topic. Candidates must not answer two questions set on
the same topic.
The questions will require candidates to present historical
explanations and assess their significance in the historical context
of events, individuals’ ideas, attitudes and/or beliefs, and the ways
in which they influenced behaviours and action.

4. Italy In 1896
Situation in 1896 – underlying divisions undermining unity:
• political systems
• economic problems
• north/south divide,
• cultural variations
• relative weakness as a great power e.g. defeat at Adowa
Discussion: How united was Italy in 1896?

5. The Liberal State 1896-1914 Attempts to stabilise the Liberal State:
• Giolitti’s government from 1903– attempts to reform the political system
• Italy’s relative weakness as great power – foreign policy and the impact on
nationalist aspirations
• Growing frustration and discontent pre-World War I – political, economic & social
Essay writing/quality of communication focus: constructing a concluding paragraph
(to illustrate focus on the question set) – To what extent was the Liberal State
unstable in the years ?

6. The First World War in Italy
The impact of World War I:
• entry into war – why divisive?
• course of the war (brief outline)
• outcome – why disappointing? Italy’s position as great power, peace
settlement
Discussion: What impact did World War I have on Italian politics, economy and
society?

7. Liberal State 1918-23 Government handling of post-war issues:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic
reforms 1919
Essay writing/quality of communication focus: essay planning – How far was the
Liberal State in Italy undermined by World War I?

8. Rise of the Fascist Party to 1922
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology
• tactics
• role of Mussolini as leader
• links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?

9. Securing and exercising power and control 1922-43
The consolidation of power
• Increasing control
• securing consent – propaganda, education and censorship
• securing control – terror and repression especially the special police (OVRA)
Discussion: To what extent was propaganda more effective than repression in the
Fascist Party’s securing of control after 1922?

10. The success of the Fascist Party (PNF)
• Economic policies including the Corporative State and the ‘battles’ for grain & births
• Relations with centres of influence in Italy including: the king, the army, industrial and agricultural elites, other political parties e.g. the nationalists
• Relationship with the Church – the nature and significance of the Lateran Treaties
• Extent of success – were economic & political aims achieved?
Essay writing/quality of communication focus: written assessment – How far was
Mussolini’s control of Italy in the years dependent on the use of terror?

11. Foreign Policy 1922 – 43 Building the new Roman Empire:
• Mussolini’s foreign policy aims
• Impact of foreign relations on domestic (internal political) politics including
the annexation of Fiume, the bombardment of Corfu
• Extent of success of policies towards Abyssinia, Spain & Germany in the
1930s
• Diplomatic and military preparations for war,
• Role in World War II & ultimate failure,
(NB: questions will not be set requiring detailed knowledge of military campaigns
or relations with other power but candidates should understand how foreign affairs
contributed both to Mussolini’s success and ultimately to his fall )
Essay writing/quality of communication focus: practising paragraphs – Why was
Mussolini so determined to increase the prestige of Italian foreign policy in the years ?

12. Overview Of Italy
Discussion/debate – candidates discuss themes connected to the nature of political
power and nationalism:
• Why did the Liberal State fail by 1922?
• Why did the Fascist Party become popular after World War I?
• How did the Fascist Party gain and consolidate power?
• How successful was Mussolini’s rule in both domestic and foreign policy in the
years ?

13. Italy In 1896 Session Objectives
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Hangman!
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government
What does this picture show us?
PLTS Independent Enquirers

14. The formation of Italy How had Italy existed prior to 1870?
In what way did Italy experience a ‘rebirth’ around 1815?
How did Italy become independent, why was the role of Piedmont important?
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

15. Liberal Italy
Using pages 5 -9 create an A3 mind map that cover the main problems facing Liberal Italy.
Ensure you include the points below:
Catholic Church
Economic Weakness
Lack of Italian Identity (Cultural)
Weaknesses of the Liberal Political system (Political)
Challenges to Liberal dominance (Catholics and Socialists)
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

16. Problems facing Liberal Italy
Weakness of
Liberal
Political
System
Hostility of
Catholic
Church
Lack of Italian
Italians
Economic
Weaknesses
Rapid
Turnover of
government
Liberal
Factions
Poverty worst
In South
Growing Political threats
Nationalism
Socialism
Catholicism

17. Debate
A debate around the question ‘Had Liberal Italy prepared as well as they could for the first world war?’
Points to consider
What were the main Liberal Beliefs and Aims
What were the key political and economic problems facing the Italian Regime?
List the main criticisms of the Liberal Political System
How did Liberals defend their political system?
Use class discussion forum to note main points
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

18. Liberal Foreign Policy
Successful foreign policy thought to make more Italians identify with the country – however, high cost of war may make them discontent
Italy wanted to rival Great Powers of Europe; gaining colonies
Had eye on Tunisia, but taken by France, 1881
Italy joined anti-French Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Germany, 1882
Built up influence in Horn of Africa
Military Defeat
Attempted to take over Abyssinia (Ethiopia), 1896, but defeated at Adowa
Italy suffered 15,000 casualties, Italian prisoners castrated – humiliating (unsurprisingly)
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

19. Essay
To what extent was Italy politically and economically united in the years ?
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

20. Quick Research Task
Research the Battle of Adowah 1896 and be prepared to discuss the significance of the battle
Session Objectives
To consider the state and unity of Italy in 1896
To understand the origins of the Italian State
To analyse the problems faced by the Liberal Government

21. The first world war in Italy
"Down with the war. Down with arms and up with humanity." (July 1914)
What problems did Italy
face in 1915?
Learning Intentions
To understand the reasons for Italy entering the war
To analyse the reasons for the ‘mutilated victory’
To assess the significance of the war on Italy’s politics, economy and society

22. Liberal Italy on the eve of war
Positive View
Negative View
Economic
Divisions
Significant
Economic growth
Great Power
Status
Stable Political
System
Chronic Poverty
Industrial
Disputes
Empire in Africa
Member of
Triple
Alliance
Growing Political threats
Nationalism
Division amongst Liberals
Socialism
Catholicism

23. Why do countries go to war?
Learning Intentions
To understand the reasons for Italy entering the war
To analyse the reasons for the ‘mutilated victory’
To assess the significance of the war on Italy’s politics, economy and society

24. Entering the war
Make a list, with reasons, for Italy’s decision to enter the war
What alliance was Italy in during 1914?
Learning Intentions
To understand the reasons for Italy entering the war
To analyse the reasons for the ‘mutilated victory’
To assess the significance of the war on Italy’s politics, economy and society
European Alliances 1913

25. Entering the war Which groups in Italy wanted war and which did not?
What did the two alliances offer Italy?
How significant do you think Italy’s decision to enter war would be?
European Alliances 1915

26. Italians at war Which groups opposed the war?
How did the people greet the war?
How did Italy find itself in a ‘war of attrition’?
What happened at the Battle of Caporetto and why was it significant?
How did the FWW end for Italy?
Learning Intentions
To understand the reasons for Italy entering the war
To analyse the reasons for the ‘mutilated victory’
To assess the significance of the war on Italy’s politics, economy and society

27. Italy at war
1915, Italy had signed the secret Treaty of London. In this treaty Britain had offered Italy large sections of territory in the Adriatic Sea region – Tyrol, Dalmatia and Istria.
Such an offer was too tempting for Italy to refuse. Britain and France wanted Italy to join in on their side so that a new front could open up t the south of the Western Front. The part Italy had to play in it required military success. This was never forthcoming. 
Between 1915 and 1917, Italian troops only got 10 miles inside Austrian territory. But in October 1917 came the disaster of Caporetto. In this battle, in fact a series of battles, the Italians had to fight the whole Austrian Army and 7 divisions of German troops. The Italian Army lost 300,000 men.
By the end of the war in 1918, 600,000 Italians were dead, 950,000 were wounded and 250,000 were crippled for life. The war cost more than the government had spent in the previous 50 years.
The Italians did not get what they felt had been promised at the Treaty of London.
The government came over as weak and lacking pride in Italy. For nationalists, the failure of the government to stand up to the "Big Three" at Versailles was unforgivable.

28. Result of the War
• Why was the war disappointing for Italy? How did it effect Italy’s position as great power, peace settlement
Discussion: What impact did World War I have on Italian politics, economy and
society?

29. What does this tell us…
What can we see…

30. Discuss the following statement, “The war made it inevitable that the Liberal regime in Italy would come to an end.”

34. Liberal State 1918-23 Why did Italy go to war?
"Do you want to be spectators in this great drama? Or do you want to be its fighters?"
To understand the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

35. Against War Supported War Catholics Liberals Nationalists Army
Socialists
Communists

36. Economic Legacy of FWW
What problems had Italy suffered as a result of the FWW?
How many men had Italy lost?
How much and from whom had Italy borrow money from and how did it effect their economy?
Who was harmed by inflation and who did well out of inflation?

37. Unemployment and industrial disputes
Why were industrialists concerned at the end of the war?
Why did unemployment seem a bitter blow?

38. Socialist ‘Threat’ Mutilated Victory
How far was the Liberal State in Italy undermined by World War I?
What to include
Effect of WW1 (‘Mutilated Victory)
Rise of the right
Weak liberal leaders
Coalition governments
Socialist advances
Why did people flock to the Socialist movement?
How did the Socialists fare in elections?
Who feared the Socialists and why?
What were landowners concerns?
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

39. On September 1919 Gabrielle D’Annunzio and his 2000 men seized town of Fiume
D’Annunzio ruled for one year in defiance of Italian government
Famed for his flamboyant and charismatic personality
Seen as a public hero
Why do you think D’Annunzio was a role model for Mussolini?
Fiume
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

40. Liberal Problems in Parliament
How had the Liberals achieved in the 1919 elections?
Why were the Socialists an increased threat?
How did the right and left perceive Nitti’s government?
How did Giolitti attempt to stabilise the country?
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

41. Liberal Problems in Parliament
Liberal’s had only 180 of the 508 seats in Parliament
Chamber of deputies now contained revolutionary Socialist Party with 156 seats
Popalari (PPI) founded Jan 1919 by the Pope led by Dan Sturzo
Did cooperate with Liberals but very wary of them due to anti-clerical stance
Nitti’s government hated by the left and the right particularly over Fiume
Giolitti formed a coalition government that relied on Catholic support
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

42. Advance of the Socialists
In September 1920 engineering workers went on strike. Why did they do this and how many became involved?
The government did not intervene why was this and how did the employers and conservatives react to this?
The strike collapsed as Giolitti had predicted but discredited the Liberal government with the Right

43. Advance of the Socialists
The situation in the countryside was deteriorating for the Liberals
In what areas did Socialism take off and to what extent did socialist membership grow?
To what extent did Socialist power grow in 1920?
How were Landowners treated?
How did urban middle classes respond to the threat, particularly shopkeepers?
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

44. • impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
How had the Liberals achieved in the 1919 elections? Why were the Socialists an increased threat? How did the right and left perceive Nitti’s government? How did Giolitti attempt to stabilise the country? In September 1920 engineering workers went on strike. Why did they do this and how many became involved? The government did not intervene why was this and how did the employers and conservatives react to this? The strike collapsed as Giolitti had predicted but discredited the Liberal government with the Right The situation in the countryside was deteriorating for the Liberals In what areas did Socialism take off and to what extent did socialist membership grow? To what extent did Socialist power grow in 1920? How were Landowners treated? How did urban middle classes respond to the threat, particularly shopkeepers?
To understand and analyse the Government handling of post-war issues including:
• economic impact
• impact of ‘mutilated victory’ including the situation in Fiume
• political difficulties - the response of political parties and democratic

45. November 1919 Elections
Universal Suffrage and Proportional Representation
Popolari
100 Seats
No single voice or ideological agreement
Socialists
156 seats – the largest party
Northern based
Irresponsible and uncompromising leadership
Split over Soviet ‘Opportunities’
Independent Socialists 21
Liberals
23 rightists
91 Giolitti Centrists
Radical liberals down to 67
Fascists
ZERO – Nothing – Nada – Not one Deputy!
No overall majority! Radical Liberal Nitti soldiers on with Minority government

46. Liberal Suicide Nitti’s government falls over Fiumi Giolitti Coalition
Liberals, Radicals, Popolari and some Socialists
Economic Chaos
Strikes, clashes, Lock outs
Giolitti remains ‘Neutral’
Enrages Industrialists
Does not satisfy Trade Unionists/Socialists
Fascists note weakness and offer to fill gap
Leads to deal with the devil!

47. Revenge of the right How did the right begin to fight back?
How did the right use Fascist groups?
How did the police respond to the sqaudrismo?
What did the Fascists do to their enemies?
Homework
How far was the Liberal State in Italy undermined by World War I?
What to include
Effect of WW1 (‘Mutilated Victory)
Rise of the right
Weak liberal leaders
Coalition governments
Socialist advances

48. Rise of the Fascists Assessment Criteria
Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, how aspects of the past have been interpreted and represented in different ways.
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology
• tactics
• role of Mussolini as leader
• links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
Focus Questions
Mussolini was destined to be a great leader?
Fascism seemed an obvious solution for Italy?

49. Defeat in Victory World War One Ambitions
Treaty of Versailles Setbacks
National Debt Expanded to pay for War
Inflation Rampant
Destroyed Middle Class Savings
Fixed Salaries hit
Industry happy as long as war continued
Post war contracts ended – Job cuts
Labour Militancy
Demobilisation
Unemployment soars

50. Polarised Politics
Newly enfranchised Working Class flock to Socialist Party
Russian Revolution
Planned overthrow of Liberal State
Conservatives petrified of Bolshevik style takeover
Liberals - Falling between the Stools
Seen as caving in to Workers
Or, as not forcing reform fast enough
November 1919 elections
Universal Male Suffrage

51. Mutilated Victory Liberals blamed for disastrous Versailles deal
Fiume regarded as essential for new Yugoslav state
Dalmatia denied
German colonies denied
Liberalism and Parliamentary democracy blamed by military and Nationalists
Liberals lumped together with Socialist Bolsheviks
New dynamic Italy required
D’Annunzio provides prototype
2,000 ex-soldiers and nationalists take Fiume by force
Liberal Government does not use force to Prevent D’Annunzio

52. Mussolini’s Rise Socialist Youth Libya Editor of Avanti World War One
Aggressive
Vitriolic
Attacked Liberal State
Advocated violent Socialist Revolution
World War One
Split with Socialists
Imperialist war versus speeding up revolution
Mussolini in favour of war
Il Popolo D’Italia

53. Why become a fascist?

54. Mussolini and the birth of Fascism
Who was Mussolini at 36?
What broadly were Mussolini’s views regarding the socialists and liberals
Which groups did Mussolini support and which groups did he criticise and why?

55. The Shift to the Right Mussolini’s War Service Il Popolo Editor
1915 – 1917 Corporal
Wounded in accident
Il Popolo Editor
Blames Liberal Government for Caporetto
Italy needs a Dictator to guide country to victory
‘Newspaper of Combatants and Producers’
As opposed to parasitic Businessmen/Profiteers, Socialist Pacifists and Liberals
‘Combat Group’ Fasci di Combattimento
March 1919
100 anti –Liberals (and Anti-Socialist (Class Struggle))
Nationalists, Republicans, Anarchists, Futurists, Radical Poets and Painters
Radical Programme of Immediate Demands
New Assembly, Abolition of Nobility, Republic, Co-operatives
Use Violence and Intimidation against Opponents

56. Creation of the Fascist movement
Early 1919 Mussolini called a meeting of fascist ‘combat groups’ who attended?
What did the meeting achieve and what was the ideology of the fascist movement?
Fascism initially looked like just another small group of the right, how can the early failure be measured?

57. Fascist Supporters
Write a profile of the types of people that would support fascism and why
What age groups did Fascism appeal to?
Argue either for Robert Farinacci or Italo Balbo as the most influential supporter of Fascism
‘Mussolini controlled Fascist squardismo.’ Discuss, use examples of Mussolini’s organisation and sections from the source p.31

58. Advance of the Socialists Recap
In September 1920 engineering workers went on strike. Why did they do this and how many became involved?
The government did not intervene why was this and how did the employers and conservatives react to this?
The strike collapsed as Giolitti had predicted but discredited the Liberal government with the Right

59. Advance of the Socialists - Recap
The situation in the countryside was deteriorating for the Liberals
In what areas did Socialism take off and to what extent did socialist membership grow?
To what extent did Socialist power grow in 1920?
How were Landowners treated?
How did urban middle classes respond to the threat, particularly shopkeepers?

60. Fascist Constitutional Engagement?
Rising tide of Violence
Local criminals and thugs join in
Provide ‘Protection’ to landowners & Industrialists
Help against striking socialists
Bolshevik threat milked
Mussolini’s Perceived authority over Fascist Squads
Through Il Popolo d’Italia
Claims to be able to control Squads
Convinces squads of benefit of unified leadership

61. Electoral Breakthrough
How did the fascists success in the May 1921 elections?
Why were the fascists able to win seats in Parliament?
How were the votes divided?
What did Mussolini have to do
to enhance his position?

62. Mussolini’s grab for power
Group A
What did Mussolini want to avoid in 1921?
Who did Mussolini have to appeal to and what did he need to convince them of?
How would Mussolini appeal to potentially difficult groups?
Why did the government seem unstable?
Group B
How did Fascist violence lead to a breakdown of law and order?
How did Mussolini increase his control over the fascist movement, what organisation did he set up?
How did Mussolini appeal to Conservatives and Catholics?

63. Violence and strikes
Fascist violence was extreme, describe an example and the purpose of Fascist violence.
How did the General strike help Mussolini achieve his aims?

64. Discussion
It was inevitable that the Fascists would come to power in 1919?
Answer in moodle
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

65. The March on Rome Assessment Criteria
Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context,
how aspects of the past have been interpreted and
represented in different ways.
Focus Questions
Mussolini was destined to be a great leader?
Fascism seemed an obvious solution for Italy?
Learning Objectives
You should eb able to analyse the following the growth of Fascism:
• ideology
• tactics
• role of Mussolini as leader
• links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?

66. Fascist Violence
How did Mussolini manipulate fascist violence to gain support with the Conservatives? DP
Why did the Liberal Government find it difficult to control the Fascists?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers
P-35

67. The General Strike Why was the General Strike organised?
To what extent was the general strike a success?
Why was the fascist action seen as impressive?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

68. The March on Rome
Why were Conservatives impressed by Fascist actions in the general strike?
What were the dual aims of Mussolini’s discussions? (coup d’etat, lib negotiations)
Why did Mussolini organise the march?
How was the march to be organised?
How did Mussolini reassure the monarchy and government?
How did the coup happen, include key dates
How were the police and army prepare and why did they not intervene?
What were the King’s motives for not intervening?
Who did the King try to convince to become PM, why did this fail?
When did Mussolini become PM?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

69. Research task
Create a revision booklet that covers the main points of Mussolini’s rise
Ensure it includes:
Timeline of events
The debate as to Mussolini only being successful due to Liberal weakness. (Pages 40 to 41) (We will also discuss this at the end of the lesson)
Summarises Mussolini’s ascent to power (The March on Rome and events proceeding the March)
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

70. Fascist Italy Timeline
1919
Italy
Popular Party Founded
March 23 - 'Fasci Italiani di Combattimento' (paramilitary fascist groups) founded.
American President Woodrow Wilson visits Italy.
1918
November the 4th - armstice with Austria
Influenza epidemics million killed worldwide
Nation-wide strikes all the year around. In August-september the workers unsuccesfully occupy the ironworks.
December - The Fiume Adventure ends.
1920
De Pinedo and Del Prete complete their Sesto Calende-Melbourne-Tokyo-Roma crossing, in a total of 360 hours of flight
The Orient Express is back in service - the Simplon Tunnel is used so that the line won't cross Germany and Austria
November - Socialist and Popular party win the political elections
April 15 - Milan, the offices of the 'Avanti!', an antifascist newspaper, raided by fascist squads
September 12 - 'L'Impresa di Fiume' (The Fiume Adventure) begins - at the orders of poet Gabriele D'annunzio, 2500 volunteers organized into paramilitary units cross the border into Yugoslavia and seize the town of Fiume.
May 17 - new elections. 'Blocco Nazionale' (The National Compact) and the fascist movement are the winners.
The fascist squads continue their violent campaign. The fascist movement (not yet a party) is widely popular in rural areas and in the towns of northern and central Italy.
Italian Communist Party founded
1921
May - Fascist squad activities heats up
24 October - national Fascist Party rally in Napoli; led by Bianchi, Balbo, De Bone and De Vecchi the fascist "squadre" reach Rome. 'Marcia su Roma': the fascist seize the capital and all administration centres. The king refuses to sign a Siege act and hands all powers to Mussolini so he can bring back order.
July - legalitarian protest strikes are violently repressed by the fascist. Nationwide fascist violence wave.
January - Pope Benedetto XV dies; cardinal Achille Ratti elected, assumes the name of Pio XI
1922
November the 4th - Fascism is no longer a movement, and becomes a political party.
The steambot 'Monte San Michele' disappears between Baltimore and Europe.
January - the fascist 'camice nere' (black shirts) officially become "Milizia volontaria per la sicurezza nazionale" (Voluntary militia for national security). The workers day of May the First is abolished. Gran Consiglo del facsismo (Fascist Grand Council) founded.
1923
Luigi Pirandello publishes Enrico IV and Sei Personaggi in Cerca d'Autore
28 October - The Fascist Party is in power.
September 27 - Italian forces leave Corfù
December 12 - Galeno, Bolzano (Northeastern Italy), a dam breaks killing 600
November 13 - Electoral law reformed: the party holding relative majority in elections automatically gets two thirds of the seats in Parliament (Legge Acerbo)
August 31 - after the killing of five Italians in Greece, Italian forces seize Corfù.
June - Mt. Etna erupts
April - Popular Parti politicians are forced to leave the government.School laws reformed (Riforma Gentile)
February - all members of the Freemasons are expelled from the Fascist Movement
May - the British Royals visit Rome
January 27 - Italy seizes and disposes for the anession of Fiume
April the 6th - with a legal trick, the Fascist Party (a.k.a. 'Lista Nazionale') gets the 64% of votes in the elections
1924
In Milan, soubrette Wanda Osiris first appears on stage.
Italo Svevo publishes La Coscienza di Zeno.
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (National Researches Council) founded.
Composer Giacomo Puccini dies in Bruxelles.
1925
Actress Eleonora Duse dies in Pittsburgh.
December - Enrico Fermi begins his work as a teacher in Florence.
A decree establishes the censorship of the press and forbids reunions of members of the opposition.
June the 10th - Giacomo Matteotti (opposition leader) is murdered
By the end of June - "Aventino": the opposition secedes from the parliament. The king confirms his support to Mussolini.
November the 4th - the former-Socialist Zaniboni attempts Mussolini's life. As a result, a repressive turn of the screw ensues.
January the 3rd - In a public speech, Mussolini admits the 'historical responsibility' in the killing of Matteotti. From this point on, Italy is by all means a dictatorship.
Freemasonry suppressed Freedom of association Suppressed Government assumes law making powers Law codes reformed Civil Service is entirely and exclusively Fascist Workers Unions can only be Fascist Italian refugees lose the Italian citizenship First reduced and finally cancelled any form of administrational independence of Townhalls anc City Councils Death penalty introduced
Between January 1925 and december 1926, Press freedom suppressed
Guglielmo Marconi establishes the first radiowave connection London-Sidney
January - Italian Communist Party convention, in Lyon, France.
1926
Eiar (national broadcasting corporation) begins its service.
The first automobile highway of the world is built in Italy: the Milano-Laghi.
Italian submarine sinks off the coast of Sicily during naval wargames; 50 men reported missing.
December 24 - a new law separates the position of Head of Government from the ministerial structure: from this moment on, only the King can take back Mussolini's powers.
Earthquake severely hits the town of Amalfi (near Naples) - the Archbishop of Naples publicly states that the quake was the result of the wrath of God against the new fashion of short skirts.
November 20 - Law for the Defence of the State: non-fascist parties and unions are outlawed, death penalty introduced, Tribunale Speciale (Speciel Court - in 17 years will sentence 42 to death and comminate a total of years of jail) created, laws for the police internment for dissidents created.
November 27 - friendship treaty between Italy and Albania.
October - Opera Nazionale Balilla (the Fascist youth groups - a paramilitary clone of the boy scouts) founded; it will be open to kids from 6 to 18 years old.  
July - the Ministero delle Corporazioni (Corporations Ministry) substitutes for all trade unions.
April the 7th - Giovanni Amendola dies as a consequence of fascist assault
April the 3rd - all workers unions united in the "Confederazione nazionale dei sindacati fascisti dei lavoratori" (National Fascist Confederatio of Workers Unions)
Italian writer Grazia Deledda wins the Nobel prize.
January - in a circular letter to all Prefects, Mussolini 'normalizes' the fascists' extremism.
1927
ISTAT, the central institute for statistics, founded.
Nobile flies over the Artic.
Italian women can no longer teach philosophy, history, Italian language and literature, latin and greek in high schools.
Troubles at the Scala Theatre in Milan: Arturo Toscanini refuses to play 'Giovinezza' (the Fascis hymn) at the opening of Turandot, faces the audience and asks them to choose, 'It's either Mussolini or me'.
June - a solar eclipse is visible across western Europe
Italian expedition to Karakorum
The first Mille Miglia race is run.
April-may - the 'Carta del Lavoro' (Work act) regulates corporate structure; deomographic policy starts: celibacy is taxed, large families are enttled to prizes.
The 'Italia' blimp crashlands on the Arctic ice. Only part of the crew will survive and be saved.
1929
November - Mt. Etna erupts
Land reclamation begins in earnest.
March 16 - single list elections established.
First acts in the Demographic policy: taxes are heavier for celibates.
December: 'Quota 90!' - the economic manipulations are effective, and the Italian Lira reaces again the 90:1 change ratio with the British Pound.
1928
Mondadori publishes its firts mistery novel, with a yellow cover. The Gialli Mondadori are born.
1930
The Electric Power Plant of Cardano is operative, and is the most powerful in Europe.
March 24 - first single party elections. The fascists win (being the only lawful party in the country) with 99% of the votes.
February 11 - Patti Lateranensi: the Vatican City State is born, Christian teaching is compulsory in Italian schools, as Italy is a Christian Catholic state.
The Pope denounces mixed schools as 'Un-Christian'
The first effects of the Crash of '29 are felt in Italy. The government starts a series of emergency actions, to increase the number of public utility jobs. Taking advantage of the crisys, the Party orders a police crackdown on anti-fascist organizations and simpathizers.
The first Italian talkie is "La Canzone dell'Amore", by Righelli.
Earthquake devastates Irpinia (Southern Italy)
November 30 - Primo Carnera knocks out Paulino Uzducum. Carnera (202 cms, 120 kgs, 24 years old) has already disputed 30 boxing matches in the USA, winning 29 for ko. A star is born.
April 13 - Tazio Nuvolari, former racing bike ace, wins the Mille Miglia driving his Alfa Romeo at over 100kmh
February 6 - Italy signs a friendship treaty with Austria, granting its help in case of Germany invasion. New Civil and Penal Codes published.
Fiat 514 presented.
May 14 - Toscanini once again refuses to play "Giovinezza" before the beginning of the show in Bologna; senator Leo Longanesi slaps him in the face in front of the audience.
April 12 - Transatlantic Rex takes off for its inaugural cruise.
Disagreements between Vatican and Italy are caused by the Azione Cattolica, an organization that is "too independent from the State" according to the Fascists. The organization is not suppressed, but strongly limited inits activities.
1931
Italian Learco Guerra is the World Champion of Cyclism.
February 11 - Mussolini visits the Pope
1932
Guglielmo Marconi experiments with ultrashort waves, creating the premises for the development of Radar and microwaves.
New station in Milan opened.
The 13 are: Ernesto Bonaiuti, Giuseppe Antonio Borgese, Mario Carrara, Gaetano De Sanctis, Antonio De Viti De Marco, Giorgio Errera, Giorgio Levi della Vida, Pietro Martinetti, Bartolo Negrisoli, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Francesco Ruffini, Edoardo Ruffini-Avondo, Lionello Venturi October the 8th - a new decree forces all University teachers to swear fealty to the Fascist Regime. On a populatio of 1200 teachers, only 13 refuse and lose their position.
October the 3rd - Lauro de Bosis, esiliated in France, drops hundreds of anti-fascist pamphlets from an airplane in the skies of Rome
November 31 - IMI (Istituto Immobiliare Italiano, Italian Realty Institute) is founded.
Somebody's humor is failing: DUCE must be written in all capitals from now on.
December 18 - Mussolini visits brand-new Littoria, the first of a series of Italian cities created from nothing in the former swamps of the Agro Pontino; Sabaudia, Pontia, Pomezia, Aprilia and Guidonia will follow.
By the end of july, Mussolini is also in charge of the Ministry of Exterior.
June - Albania tries to reject the Italian control over a joint customs police force; Italian ships seize the port town of Durazzo and Albania has to relent.
April 24 - Mussolini first meets Claretta Petacci, that will become his lover and share his final detiny.
April the 8th - for the first time, Etiopia is an issue in the fascist Gran Consiglio
Architectural redesign is started in many Italian cities, including Rome, Milan and Brescia.
1933
"Orbace" a rough "autharchic" fabric created by sheperds in Sardinia is the new rage.  
Mickey Mouse and Yo-yos land in Italy.
Movie director Mario Camerini shots "Gli Uomini che Mascalzoni" and inaugurates the "Telefoni bianchi" movement (light-hearted entertainment without the slightest hint of social commentary).
First Venice Film Festival.
Josephine Baker tours Italy.
April - First Fashion fair in Turin
January 30 - Mussolini sends his congratulations to Hitler ('That funny man with Chaplin brush mustache'), freshly elected as Cancelor of the Reich.
January the 3rd - Mussolini illustrates the first plans for the invasion of Etiopia
January- IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Indusriale) founded; it allows the Regime to control economy on the field.
Rex crosses the Atlantic in 4 days, 23 hours and 28 minutes, and conquers the Blue Ribbon.
Enrico Fermi develops the Beta radiation Theory, appying the quantum field principle.
The flying fleet loses two planes over the ocean, and two pilots die.
December 12 - "Giornata della Madre e Del fanciullo" (Mother and Son Day) created and celebrated. A prize is given. The 93 most prolific mothers (no less than 14 sons) meet Mussolini and the Pope; a woman from Naples (18 sons) sets the record. 
November 30 - as part of the budding demographic campaign, 2600 couples are brought to Rome and married in a single, huge ceremony. Having sex is fine as long as you reproduce.
November 14 - Mussolini attacks the League of Nations during a public speech.
August Mussolini meets Dollfuss and promises Italian military help to Austria.
25 italian sea-planes cross the Altantic and back, as a single flying formation.
July 25 - Nazis kill Dollfuss; nazi coup in Austria fails; Mussolini speaks against Germany and deploys Italian troops on the Austrian border.
September 24 - born in Naples princess Maria Pia, daughter of the Princes of Piedmont.
June first Mussolini-Hitler meeting in Venice.
1934
Toscanini goes into self-imposed exile in the USA.
Television experiments publicly shown at the Fifth International Radio Show in Milan.
First 'Lotteria di Tripoli' - 1 ticket sold for 12 lire can get 6 millions.
1935
The demographic policy continues: Romilda Nigiotti (Rome) has 24 children and is expecting the 25th.
By bombarding uranium with neutrons, Fermi poduces the first fission.
First signs of an openly anti-British attitude in the Fascist line.
October 14 - First issue of the magazine "L'Avventuroso" published; it will make Flash Gordon, Mandrake, Jungle Jim, Secter Agent X-9 and Radio Patrol popular in Italy.
December the 5th - Ual-Ual massacre on the Somalia-Etiopia border
October the 9th - the League of Nation starts a punitive action against Italy.
Autharchia Carcadé replaces tea, lignite replaces coal, lanital replaces wool. Cofee is not good for your health, and you can cut it, or replace it with cicory. Rubber and cork replace leather for shoes, cotton is produced from broom fibre. Rabbits are grown for meat and furs. Gates and fences are stripped for iron.
October the 3rd - Italy invades Abissinia (Africa); DeBono and Graziani are in charge of the troops. The Pope blesses the venture as "necessary".
July 28 - Tazio Nuvolari triumphs at Nurburgring, beating with his old Alfa Romeo P3 the technically suprior Germans.
January the 7th - arrangment between Italy and France; Italy has total freedom of action in Etiopia
April - france, England and Italy condemn the German arms rush.
1936
January the 6th - the German ambassador informs the Furher that Italy will not oppose the transformation of Austria into a German satellite
Enrico Fermi formulates the slowed down neutrons law ("Fermi law")
1000 are killed by the fall of a dam near Turin.
Italy starts production of Lanital, a wool substitute produced from milk proteines.
December 18 - "Buy Italian", 'Autarchia' begins: the Italians will have to do without foreign imports. The nation needs gold: all the women give their golden wedding ring to the Party ( rings in Rome, in Milan) and get a steel replica from the Party; playwright Luigi Pirandello donates his Nobel medal to the campaign, Bologna's cardinal Nassalli Rocca gives his episcopal chain. On the whole kgs of gold are collected.
September - despite the treaty signed stating otherwise, both Italy and Germany start putting resources and forces Italian volunteers, 2000 cannons and 800 war planes - on Franco's side during the Spanish Civil War. 
October 24 - the Rome-Berlin Axis is born. Former problems over Austria are archived.
July 14 - first number of "Il Bertoldo", a satirical magazine, hits the stands at 40 centesimi; in the following 7 years it will try and make people laugh, avoiding the Regime censorship.
July - Italy and Germany support the Franchist faction in Spain.
March the 6th - openly pro-German policy started
May the 6th - Italy conquers Etiopia, Italian troops commanded by Pietro Badoglio enter Addis Abeba. King Vittorio Emanuele III is also Emperor of Etiopia. The League of Nations can only withdraw its sanctions as the fact has been accomplished anyway. Mussolini announces that Fascist Italy is now the true heir of the Roman Empire.
January 2 - Italian treaty with England for the joint interests regulation in the Mediterraean basis.
Mussolini is in Lybia, and declares himself a protector of Islam.
March the Italian troops sent to support Franco are blocked in Guadalajara
1937
Actor Ettore Petrolini dies in Rome.
November 18 - Italy and Germany recognize Franco's rule as legitimate in Spain.
Due to war expenditures, the Italian Lira drops its value of a 41%.
May - the 'Pinguino' (Penguin) sweetens the summer of the kids: it's a vanilla ice cream, shaped like a icycle, and covered in chocolate.
Before cachet camion chaffeur chaperon chignon cocktail flirt ferry-boat pied-de-poule pullover sandwich standard tight trousse yogurt
April 28 - Cinecittà founded in Rome: 14 sound stages, 3 water pools, square meters of urban complex, of gardens; Turin loses the film industry.
After cialdino autocarro autista capperone cignone coccotello amoretto treno-battello millezampe farsetto tramezzino tipicato velada scarabattola mezzorado
June the First - MINCULPOP (Ministero della Cultura Popolare, Ministry of Popular Culture) is born: foreign words are forbidden, and Italian surrogates, often unwillingly hilarious, are created and officially imposed. On the radio, jazzman Louis Armstrong becomes 'the italian musician Luigi Fortebraccio' in a plain translation of his name. Benny Goodman suffers the same fate and becomes 'Beniamino Buonoumo'; soon MINCULPOP will forbid jazz altogether.
The first Italian glossy magazine, Omnibus, published by Longanesi with a starting run of copies at 1 lira - it will be closed down by the censors two years later. Luckier is "Signorina Grandi Firme", that will jump from to copies per week in a few months
The Demographic Campaign reaches its maximum; a cheque for 700 lire (a month's salary for a professional) is awarded to all young men that decide to marry; administration position are opened preferentially to prolific fathers. Prolific mothers with at least 7 sons will be awarded a cheque for 5000 lire plus a life insurance.
1938
Phisicists Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segré sinthesize the element 43.
December 11 - Italy deserts the League of Nations
June - the Rosselli brothers are killed in France upon fascist orders
November - Italy is part of the Anti- Comintern Pact. Italian and German ships enforce a block around Spain against USSR-provided supplies.
September international crisys. Czech mobilitation. Mussolini offers his services as a mediator between Hitler and the Western Powers.
September Munich Conference and Pact.
during the summer, Italian troops are sent to Spain in the Ebro offensive.
July 14 - 'Manifesto della Razza': the racist laws are passed in Italy.
A fine from 500 to 5000 lire awaits all manufacturers producing goods with foreign markings or words on them.
January the 3rd - in remembrance of Jan. 3rd '25, the day is made into a national holliday; the formal 'fascist' "voi" ('thou', more or less) substitutes the supposedly 'effeminate' "lei" ('you') as a polite form of address - the women's magazine 'Lei? has to change its name into 'Annabella?. The Roman Step (a.k.a. Goose Step) is imposed to the troops.
Death of writer, poet and overall maverick Gabriele Dannunzio
November 30 - Italy claims possession of Tunisi, Gibuti and Corsica. Relations with France become tense.
Enric Fermi awarded the Nobel Prize for phisics.

71. Timeline Source analysis Political spectrum PLTS- Self Managers
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

72. Securing Power Assessment Criteria
Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context,
how aspects of the past have been interpreted and
represented in different ways.
Focus Questions
How did Mussolini become a dictator?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology
• tactics
• role of Mussolini as leader
• links with other groups, institutions and individuals
Video Documentary

73. Securing and exercising power and control 1922-43
The consolidation of power
• Increasing control
• securing consent – propaganda, education and censorship
• securing control – terror and repression especially the special police (OVRA)
Discussion: To what extent was propaganda more effective than repression in the
Fascist Party’s securing of control after 1922?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

74. Securing and consolidating power
Why was a completely fascist government not yet possible?
Why were conservatives reassured by Mussolini’s first cabinet?
On what grounds did Mussolini claim to need dictatorial powers?
Was there any need for these powers to be granted?
Why did other politicians trust Mussolini?
How did Mussolini’s speech convince politicians, and what kind of support did he receive in Parliament?
Why did Mussolini set up the grand council of fascists and how did it operate?
Which powerful employers organisation supported fascism?
How did Mussolini gain Catholic support?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

75. Acerbo Law
The largest group in Parliament should get 2/3rds of the seats (as long as had ¼ of votes)
Would mean the end of weak coalition governments
What was the danger of the Acerbo law?
Why was it easy for Mussolini to fix elections?
Why did many politicians vote for the Acerbo Law?
Why were so many politicians prepared to support Mussolini?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

76. 1924 Election Acerbo Law passed April 1924
Fascists achieved 66% of vote, Fascist MPs 35> 374.
Name at least three reasons for Mussolini’s increasing popularity.
How resilient was support for other parties?
How did Mussolini’s ‘dual’ policies help him to become a dictator?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

77. Murder of Matteotti Create a creative newspaper article.
Team one create a neutral article
Team two create an article that favours the fascist perspective
Team three create an article that favours the socialist perspective
Why was Mussolini still in a precarious position after the 1924 election? (p52)
Who was Matteotti and how did he oppose Fascism?
Why was the murder of Matteotti damaging to Mussolini (pubic opinion, Aventine secession)?
How did the King and senior liberals seek to take advantage of the situation?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

78. What does this tell us
What can I see
Becco Giallo, underground newspaper (1924)

79. The end of Democracy
July 1924 Mussolini introduces press censorship- Opposition from Liberals increases
Fascist Ultimatum- End Matteotti affair or lose fascist support
How did Mussolini’s speech of Jan 1925 accept responsibility?
Why was their little opposition to Mussolini?
What was the Leggi Fascistissime and what did it do?
What final touches did Mussolini make to ensure his dictatorial powers?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

80. Dictatorship
Copy the diagram from page 54, underneath each heading write a short explanation of Mussolini’s actions.
How far was Mussolini’s ability to secure and increase his power in the period due mainly to the weaknesses of his political opponents?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

81. Debate
Was Mussolini’s ascent to power confirmed by the Murder of Matteotti?
Learning Objectives
The growth of Fascism:
• ideology • tactics • role of Mussolini as leader • links with other groups, institutions and individuals
• Fascist support – who supported the Fascist Party (PNF), and why?
Discussion: What made Fascism attractive to so many in Italy?
PLTS- Self Managers

82. Week
Lesson 1
Lesson 2 1
Securing the dictatorship
Propaganda, education and censorship 2
Securing control – terror and repression especially the special police (OVRA)
Economic policies including the Corporative State and the ‘battles’ for grain & births 3
Relations with centres of influence in Italy including: the king, the army,
industrial and agricultural elites, other political parties e.g. the nationalists
Relationship with the Church 4
Extent of success – were economic & political aims achieved? Essay
Mussolini’s foreign policy aims 5
Impact of foreign relations on domestic (internal political) politics
Extent of success of policies towards Abyssinia, Spain & Germany in the 1930s 6
War essay
Essay technique and Revision Tips

83. Securing consent – propaganda, education and censorship
“Often I would like to be wrong, but so far it has never happened and events have turned out exactly as I foresaw”

84. Mussolini's Aim 1926 achieved aim of becoming dictatorship
Could issue laws by decrees, Parliament irrelevant
No organised opposition, Popolari and Liberals split and leaderless
King would not stand up to Mussolini
Set about creating Fascist state
Allied with powerful forces in Italy, Church, industralists and armed forces
Mussolini would make all decisions, more interested with personal power than in improving Italian life
Mussolini essential for functioning of the government as rival factions argued

85. Cult of Personality
First came to national attention as editor of Il Popolo d’Italia
Determined to use propaganda to build support
How did Mussolini prevent opposition views being spread and make sure that his views were?
What tools did Mussolini use to spread propaganda?

86. ‘il Duce’
The cult was intended to create a vast support for Mussolini based around his supposed superhuman abilities
How was Mussolini known as a saviour?
How did Mussolini play up to the myth? (athletic, always right, Churchill’s view, culture, suppressed certain info.)
How did Mussolini view the public?
Discuss; Did the cult of personality achieve its aim?

87. Seven word challenge Anti-fascist opposition
Use no more than seven words to take notes on the headlines below,
You must be able to explain your words. Page 69-71
Anti-fascist opposition
Impact of propaganda on support for fascism
Encouraging co-operation with Fascism

88. Debate How popular was Mussolini’s Regime
Was not popular
Was popular
Use page 72 to help you

89. Essay Advice top up Answer the question Do not ask questions
Do not use ‘I’
1930s not 1930’s
PEEL- Essential
Significance, Significance, Significance
At least 1000 words
Balanced argument

90. “Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism"
securing control – terror and repression especially the special police (OVRA)
“Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism"

91. Popular support and opposition
How did Mussolini feel about using violence?
How were opponents denied their views and how many had been killed by 1926?
How were dissidents treated by the OVRA?
How did the Communists operate?
Who set up Justice and Liberty and how did they fare?
How much opposition was there to the Fascist regime?

92. How far was Mussolini’s ability to secure and increase his power in the period due mainly to the weaknesses of his political opponents?
Introduction- How and when did Mussolini seize power? What are the main issues to discuss? Were there two stages to his seizing power, ie before March on Rome and then consolidation of power. Was his power complete in 1928?
Section 1- Mussolini came to power due to weakness of regime. How were the liberals weak in the run up to the March on Rome, WW1, challenge of nationalists and socialists
Section 2- Appeal of Mussolini, setting up of Fascist movement, Mussolini’s tactics (dual policy, different appeals), squadrismo.
Section
Division of Mussolini’s political opponents, no alternative, reassurance policy of Mussolini, use of force and the Matteotti affair.
Conclusion- Offer your judgement, was Mussolini the real reason or would someone else have seized power regardless die to the weakness of the liberals.

93. Encouraging co-operation with Fascism
The Popolari and Liberals did not protest why?
How did the Fascists encourage jounranlists and intellectuals?
How were teachers and professors treated?
Why did membership of Fascism help those in the public sector?

94. Impact of Propaganda
In what ways did the Fascists put forward propaganda?
Why were most Italians relatively happy with Mussolini?

95. Concentration Camps What were the conditions like in these camps?
Were they as endemic as in Germany?
Did Mussolini promote the camps?
How popular was Mussolini’s fascist regime?

96. Mussolini and powerful groups in Italy
Learning Intentions
All should understand the Relations with centres of influence in Italy including: the king, the army, industrial and agricultural elites, other political parties e.g. the nationalists
Most should be able to make links between the various centres of influence in Italy.
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role with powerful groups
Focus Essay Question
How far do you agree that the Catholic Church and the traditional elites aided Mussolini in his consolidation of power in the years ?

97. Mussolini and Government
How did Mussolini use the King?
What was the role of government ministers?
What were the key dates in the demise of Parliament? Why was Mussolini keen to avoid a wholesale sacking of the civil service?
How did Mussolini encourage loyalty?
Why did the Fascist party complain about the civil service?
How did Mussolini gain support in the armed forces?
In what ways did Mussolini intervene in the judiciary?
To what extent did Mussolini control local government?
Learning Intentions
All should understand the relations with centres of influence in Italy
Most should be able to make links between the various centres of influence in Italy.
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role with powerful groups

98. Powerful groups
Why was Mussolini keen to avoid a wholesale sacking of the civil service?
How did Mussolini encourage loyalty?
Why did the Fascist party complain about the civil service?
How did Mussolini gain support in the armed forces?
In what ways did Mussolini intervene in the judiciary?
To what extent did Mussolini control local government?
Learning Intentions
All should understand the relations with centres of influence in Italy
Most should be able to make links between the various centres of influence in Italy.
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role with powerful groups

99. How did Mussolini gain the support of the Vatican?
What were the Lateran agreements?
How did the Vidoni pact help Mussolini’s relations with industry?
Learning Intentions
All should understand the relations with centres of influence in Italy
Most should be able to make links between the various centres of influence in Italy.
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role with powerful groups

100. The Fascist Party (PNF)
What was the overall relationship between Mussolini and the PNF
Why would mussolini have felt threatened by his early relationship with the party particularly the Ras?
How did Mussolini seek to gain the loyalty of the Fascist party?
How did Mussolini finalise his control over the party?
What were the divisions in the Fascist party and how did they strengthen Mussolini’s position?
How did the supporters of the PNF change?
Why did no serious rival to il Duce ever emerge?

101. Relations between party and state?
Why were there rivalries between the party and government institutions and how did these rivalries increase Mussolini’s power?
How efficient was the fascist government?

102. Debate
Mussolini had successfully taken control of all aspects of the Italian state. Discuss.
Learning Intentions
All should understand the relations with centres of influence in Italy
Most should be able to make links between the various centres of influence in Italy.
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role with powerful groups

103. Essay P.81

104. Relationship with the Church – the nature and significance of the Lateran Treaties
How far do you agree that the Catholic Church and the traditional elites aided Mussolini in his consolidation of power in the years ?

105. Mussolini’s aims for life in fascist Italy
Help him secure power
Transform Italian society and character
Condemned bourgeois mentality- that emphasised family, local loyalties and a comfortable standard of living
Mussolini wanted Italy to be tough, war like, disciplined and obedient to their Duce
Fascist policies designed to create this jeopardised Mussolini's position with powerful groups

106. Fascism and the church Mussolini realised he had to compromise
Mussolini never lost anti-religious views
In what ways did Mussolini show his support of the church?
The Lateran agreements
Why had the Pope resented the state?
How did the Lateran agreements end the conflict?
What were the main details of the Lateran agreements?
Why were some Italians unimpressed by the agreements?
Detail the disagreements between Fascism and the Church that took place following the Lateran agreements?

107. Did Fascism modernise and transform Italian society?

108. Did Fascism modernise and transform Italian society
How tightly is modern society controlled?
Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt has warned NHS managers cannot expect to keep their jobs if they preside over failings in care. Telegraph Jan 2013
Learning Intentions
All should understand the main functions of Fascist society
Most should be able to make links between the various social policies and their intentions
Some should be able to analyse the significance of Mussolini’s role in Italian Society
Ministers are proposing to set a minimum price of 45p a unit for the sale of alcohol in England and Wales as part of a drive to tackle the problem The Guardian
State schools 'failing girls who want to study physics‘ BBC Oct 2012
Focus Essay Question
How far do you agree that the Catholic Church and the traditional elites aided Mussolini in his consolidation of power in the years ?

109. Success Failure Fascism and Society 4. Fascism and Social life
1. Fascism and anti-Semitism
How did Mussolini feel about the Jews?
Why did his views begin to change?
August 1938 Jews banned from schools
October 1938 Jews banned form PNF
Nov 1938 banned from marriage with non-J
Italy did not collaborate with Holocaust
Exemptions for those who fought in WW1
Once South Italy defeated, anti-Jewish laws passed Nov 1943 decree ordered rounding up of Jews 7500 sent to death camps, 600 survived
3. Fascism and Youth
What was Mussolini’s dream?
All teachers required to take a loyalty oath- Fascist Teachers’ Association
Duce’s portrait hung in classes, teachers told to emphasise greatness of Mussolini
Only patriotic books and lessons allowed
Under Mussolini Italy would be great again
Italy had saved GB, Fr and USA from defeat!
What was the fascist youth movement and how did it operate?
Fascism and Society
4. Fascism and Social life
Dopolavoro set up 1925 to influence Italian social life
What activities/venues did this involve?
How popular was the programme?
What other measures did Mussolini take to interfere in Italian social life?
EXT: Copy summary diagram page 109
2. Fascism and Women, Battle for Births
Views in common with church, women should be wife and mother, contraception and abortion= bad
Schools encouraged girls to gender specific roles
Bttle for Births launched 1927, aim population 40 to 60 million
What were marriage loans?
Fascist propaganda emphasised child birth
What happened to people who did not want to be parents?
In what ways were women encouraged to stay at home?
How successful was the battle for births?
5. Success?
Make a table where was Mussolini successful/unsuccessful in his policies
Success
Failure

110. Success Failure Success?
Did Mussolini’s social policies totally transform society
Success
Failure

111. To understand the effect of Mussolini’s policy on living standards
Economic policies including the Corporative State and the ‘battles’ for grain & births
To understand the effect of Mussolini’s policy on living standards
To analyse the success and failures of Mussolini’s policy on the economy and agriculture

112. Mussolini’s Aims Mussolini, like Hitler, no economist
Early in 1920s adopted populist economic policies to secure power
As 1920s developed wanted economic transformation- first ‘corporate state’
Autarky
Old economic problems ignored , north-south divide, rural poverty, industry underdevelopment

113. Impact of Fascist policies
Company profits up
Alberto de Stefani- Treasury Minister- traditional and helped control gov spending
Reduced state intervention, phones and ww1 taxes
TUs outlawed Vidoni Palace Pact 1925
2. Battle for the Lira
When was de Stefani dismissed?
What happened to the Lira in 1926 and why?
Why did Mussolini reset the exchange rate of the lira in Dec 1927?
How did the reset effect the economy?
Which areas did well from the fixed rate and which badly?
Impact of Fascist policies
on Italian Industry
4. Depression and Isolation
How did the depression effect Italy compared to the rest of the world?
How did Italy’s treatment in the 1930s lead to Autarky?
How successful was Autarky?
3. Corporate state- the theory
How did workers benefit in the early 1920s?
What is a corporate state and how does it operate?
The reality
Mussolini more on the side of big industry, Confindustria and against Rossoni.
How did the Ministry of Corporations claim success in 1926?
Who do you think benefited mostly from the corporations employers or workers?
5. Living standards
How did living standards change in the 1920s and 1930s with regards to inflation, unemployment
How did Mussolini feel about the change in living standards?

114. Agriculture 1. The Battle for Grain Attempt to become self sufficent
Mussolini saw need to import grain as a big weakness
Provided incentives for farmers, grants for tractotrs, machinery, fertiliser etc
1920s 5.5 million tonnes to 7 million tonnes 10 years later
Grain imports down 75%
Inappropriate land used
What were the successes and failures of this policy?
Agriculture
2. Land reclamantion
How did government money help, give examples?
How successful was land reclamation?
3. Impact of policies in living standards
How did the improvement in living standards vary between areas?

115. Overall view of the economy
Do you think Mussolini transformed the economy?
How successful was the corporate state?
Who were the winners and losers?

116. To what extent were Mussolini’s economic policies a success in the years 1925-1940?
Intro- what is a success, overall aims and ambitions
Section 1- corporate state
Section 2- Achieving Autarky
Section 3- Big business
Section 4- Popular support- battle for grain, and land reclamation
Section 5- improving the efficiency and production capacity
Section 6- Improving the living standards
Conclusion- Answer question, tie together argument
Throughout the essay make sure you are pointing out successes and failures and constantly refer to the question

117. Extent of success – were economic & political aims achieved?
Essay: How far was
Mussolini’s control of Italy in the years dependent on the use of terror?

118. How far was Mussolini’s control of Italy in the years 1925-43 dependent on the use of terror?
Intro- Define the key words ‘terror’ and ‘control’. How had Mussolini put himself in a position to control Italy in 1945?
Para 1- to what extent was the relative absence of opposition the result of Mussolini’s use of terror
Para 2- to what extent was the relative absence of opposition the rsult of propaganda and censorhsip
Para 3- to what extent was the relative absence of oppoisition the result of successful domestic policies such as the Lateran Treaties?
Para 4- to what extent was the relative absence of opposition due to successful economic policies- were living standards improving
Conclusion- Draw together your argument, do you think Mussolini could have continued without the use of terror? Do you think Mussolini had genuine support regarding his domestic policies?

119. Mussolini’s foreign policy aims
1922 No clear aim
In youth anti-imperialist as a socialist
Supported WWI and appalled by ‘mutilated victory’
In first few months in power, general aim was to make Italy great again
Wanted Italy to be dominant in the Mediterranean, expand to Africa, have the Balkans as its own sphere of influence
A more energetic and aggressive Italian people would help with this aim
Had vision but little strategy
Decided he would take over all issues of foreign affairs as offered the perfect stage for him
As with Liberal Italy, wanted to make Italy a great power, however, Mussolini did so with reckless abandon that eventually led to his death and the end of Fascist Italy

120. Foreign Policy 4. Ethiopia Military Victory
3. Ehtiopia Build up
What were Mussolini’s main aims in invading Ethiopia?
Why did Mussolini believe a victory in Ethiopia would improve the domestic situation?
Pre-text for war- Italy had sponsored Italy’s League of Nations membership in 1923 and signed a Treaty of Friendship in 1928
What was the spark that triggered the war?
Why did Mussolini not wait for a league of nations investigation?
Why did Britain and France do very little to oppose Mussolini’s plans for conquest of Dec 1934?
1.Diplomacy
Aug 1923 Italian general and four staff assassinated in Greece
What did Mussolini demand and how did the Greeks respond?
What action did Italy take and what was the response to this?
Was the attack on Greece a success for fascism?
What success did Mussolini have in Yugoslavia and Albania( in detail)
How did Yugoslavia respond?
In what ways did Mussolini begin to look more powerful in relations with Britain and France (Kellog-Briand Pact 1928, Locarno Treaty 1926)?
How far were Mussolini’s actions little more than a publicity stunt?
Mussolini appeared a good neighbour to GB and FR how did his actions suggest he was not a good neighbour (pro-fascist funding, German air force, KB Pact Aftermath
4. Ethiopia Military Victory
How did the Italian Mussolini succeed, include key dates and victories?
How was Italian public opinion mixed?
Why was GB and Fr outraged by the attacks and how did they respond?
How did Mussolini perceive the position of GB and Fr?
Foreign Policy
2. German-Italian Relations
Mussolini saw resurgent Germany as an opportunity to manipulate GB and Fr.
Early relations between the two were strained
Why was Mussolini wary of Hitler?
What happened in Austria and how did it strain relations?
Stresa Front GB, Italy, Fr, meet to discuss united front to Hitler’s dismissal of the T of Versailles. Mussolini saw the meeting as the ideal opportunity to push his own imperial aims safe from interference from an occupied GB and Fr.
5. Alliance with Germany
What was the Rome- Berlin axis when was it established?
Why did Mussolini not fear war?
To what extent did Italy intervene in the Spanish Civil War?
How did Italo-German relations become closer in ?
What were Mussolini’s territorial demands and how did he justify these?

121. Research task
Create a booklet detailing a timeline of Mussolini’s foreign policy
Ensure you include detailed sections on the invasion of Albania 1939, the Pact of Steel 1939,non-belligerence the entry into the second world war.

122. Italy and World War 2
How did Italian forces fare in WW2, where did they experience victories and where defeats?
How did the German’s ‘support’ Italy?
How did Mussolini eventually fall?

123. Foreign policy Overview
In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power to an extreme form of aggressive nationalism.
He dreamt of making Italy a nation that was "great, respected and feared" throughout Europe, and indeed the world. An early example was his bombardment of Corfu in 1923.
Soon after he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in Albania and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in Libya, which had been loosely a colony since 1912.
It was his dream to make the Mediterranean mare nostrum ("our sea" in Latin), and he established a large naval base on the Greek island of Leros to enforce a strategic hold on the eastern Mediterranean.
However, his first 'baby steps' into foreign policy seemed to portray him as a 'statesman', for he participated in the Locarno Treaties of 1925
Following the Stresa Front against Germany in 1935, however, Mussolini's policy took a dramatic turning point and revealed itself once again to be that of an aggressive nature. This domino-effect of war began with the Second Italo-Abyssinian War.

124. Impact of foreign relations on domestic (internal political) politics including the annexation of Fiume, the bombardment of Corfu

125. Diplomatic and military preparations for war, Role in World War II & ultimate failure,
Essay writing/quality of communication focus: practising paragraphs – Why was
Mussolini so determined to increase the prestige of Italian foreign policy in the years ?

126. Diplomacy
Aug 1923 Italian general and four staff assassinated in Greece
What did Mussolini demand and how did the Greeks respond?
What action did Italy take and what was the response to this?
Was the attack on Greece a success for fascism?
What success did Mussolini have in Yugoslavia and Albania( in detail)
How did Yugoslavia respond?
In what ways did Mussolini begin to look more powerful in relations with Britain and France (Kellog-Briand Pact 1928, Locarno Treaty 1926)?
How far were Mussolini’s actions little more than a publicity stunt?
Mussolini appeared a good neighbour to GB and FR how did his actions suggest he was not a good neighbour (pro-fascist funding, German air force, KB Pact Aftermath

127. German Italian relations
Mussolini saw resurgent Germany as an opportunity to manipulate GB and Fr.
Early relations between the two were strained
Why was Mussolini wary of Hitler?
What happened in Austria and how did it strain relations?
Stresa Front GB, Italy, Fr, meet to discuss united front to Hitler’s dismissal of the T of Versailles. Mussolini saw the meeting as the ideal opportunity to push his own imperial aims safe from interference from an occupied GB and Fr.

128. Ethiopia What were Mussolini’s main aims in invading Ethiopia?
Why did Mussolini believe a victory in Ethiopia would improve the domestic situation?
Pre-text for war- Italy had sponsored Italy’s League of Nations membership in 1923 and signed a Treaty of Friendship in 1928
What was the spark that triggered the war?
Why did Mussolini not wait for a league of nations investigation?
Why did Britain and France do very little to oppose Mussolini’s plans for conquest of Dec 1934?
Military Victory
How did the Italian Mussolini succeed, include key dates and victories?
How was Italian public opinion mixed?
Why was GB and Fr outraged by the attacks and how did they respond?
How did Mussolini perceive the position of GB and Fr?

129. Alliance with Germany 1936-9
What was the Rome- Berlin axis when was it established?
Why did Mussolini not fear war?
To what extent did Italy intervene in the Spanish Civil War?
How did Italo-German relations become closer in ?
What were Mussolini’s territorial demands and how did he justify these?

130. Italian Foreign Policy Finale

131. Summary foreign policy
To what extent did Mussolini’s foreign policies enhance Italy’s status as a great power?
How did Mussolini’s foreign policy help the domestic situation?
Was the Ethiopia war a success for Italy?
Was Mussolini’s foreign policy a success?

132. Essay foreign policy Intro Explain Mussolini’s aims in foreign policy
Main body of the essay
The extent to which Mussolini achieved each of his aims is important in the main body of the essay
Para 1- the extent to which Mussolini expanded its Empire
Para 2- Extent to which Italy became a dominant role in the Mediterranean
Para 3- The extent to which Italy became a great military power
Para 4- The extent to which Italy became a diplomatic great power, accorded equal status by Britain and France
Para 5- The extent to which foreign policy generated support for Mussolini within Italy
Tips- Keep linking back to the question and the extent of Mussolini’s success,
Conclusion- Were Mussolini’s aims over ambitious? Did the successes match up to his foreign policy goals?

133. Overview Of Italy
Create a revision mind map around these areas; be prepared to present them
Discuss themes connected to the nature of political power and nationalism:
• Why did the Liberal State fail by 1922?
• Why did the Fascist Party become popular after World War I?
• How did the Fascist Party gain and consolidate power?
• How successful was Mussolini’s rule in both domestic and foreign policy in the years ?
Learning Intention: Understand revision techniques for module.
To understand grading criteria