1. Water Resources\Quality and Quantity

2. Water Quality and Quantity
Lecture Outline
Clean Water Act
Usage and uses of water
Water contaminants: biological, chemical and physical agents
Water and human waste related infections
Objectives of water treatment
Methods of water treatment: municipal
Household water treatment systems: filters, settling, desalinization, disinfection
Bottled water
Protection and Inspection of water resources: wells, springs, catchment basins, rain water
Construction of home filters
Water disinfection: Chlorination of certain volumes of water
Case Studies : Solar disinfection
National and International Water Standards Biological, Chemical and Radiological

6. WATER QUALITY “An Organized Society”
An Adequate and Safe Water Supply and Proper Disposal of Human Wastes are the First Requirements of an Organized Society.
The sad FACT is that in most of the world BOTH are lacking.

7. FLOW FACT SHEET Source :David Fenkel, Oscilloscope Pictures, david@oscilloscope.net
Without Water , there is no living being on planet earth
• Of the 7 billion people on earth, 2 billion do not have access to safe, clean drinking water.

8. FLOW FACT SHEET
• While the average American uses 150 gallons of water per day, those in developing countries cannot find five .
• The water and sanitation crisis claims more lives through disease than any war claims through guns .
There are estimates that from million people get sick per year from drinking tap water.

9. FLOW FACT SHEET
There are over 116,000 human-made chemicals that might find their way into water supply systems
According to the National Resources Defense Council, in a scientific study in which more than
1,000 bottles of 103 brands of water were tested, about
one-third of the bottles contained synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic. •

10. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
The Clean Water Act

11. The Clean Water Act
The Act established the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States.
It gave EPA the authority to implement pollution control programs such as setting wastewater standards for industry.
The Clean Water Act also continued requirements to set water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters.

12. The Clean Water Act
The Act made it unlawful for any person to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters, unless a permit was obtained under its provisions.
It also funded the construction of sewage treatment plants under the construction grants program and recognized the need for planning to address the critical problems posed by non-point source pollution.

13. The Clean Water Act
Subsequent enactments modified some of the earlier Clean Water Act provisions.
Revisions in 1981 streamlined the municipal construction grants process, improving the capabilities of treatment plants built under the program.
   
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14. The Clean Water Act
Changes in 1987 phased out the construction grants program, replacing it with the State Water Pollution Control Revolving Fund, more commonly known as the Clean Water State Revolving Fund.
This new funding strategy addressed water quality needs by building on EPA-State partnerships.

15. The Clean Water Act
Over the years, many other laws have changed parts of the Clean Water Act.
Title I of the Great Lakes Critical Programs Act of 1990, for example, put into place parts of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978, signed by the U.S. and Canada, where the two nations agreed to reduce certain toxic pollutants in the Great Lakes.

16. The Clean Water Act
That law required EPA to establish water quality criteria for the Great Lakes addressing 29 toxic pollutants with maximum levels that are safe for
humans, wildlife, and aquatic life.
It also required EPA to help the States implement the criteria on a specific schedule.

17. EPA DOCUMENT
HistoryIntroductionOther LinksElectronic Clean Water Act "Snapshot"Finding Updates
Clean Water Act History
Growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution led to enactment of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.

18. A Brief Introduction to the Clean Water Act
For a brief introduction to the Clean Water Act, please visit the Watershed Academy's Web-based training module called, "Introduction to the Clean Water Act."

19. Environmental factors affecting human health include :
The transmission and type of diseases depend on the interactions of these factors with each other , with people and with the Environment.
Water and food quantities and qualities, methods of waste disposal(solid ,liquid and gaseous) vectors of diseases, and social and cultural practices.

20. Water Consumption
Water consumption in the United States is 338 Billion Gallons of fresh water per day. OR
1400 gallons/capita/day of which
10% Public tap water
11% industry
38% cooling water for electric generating plants
41 % Irrigation

21. Water Consumption

22. Usage of Water 1. It takes 36 gallons to fill a bath tub
2. It takes 40 gallons for a washing machine
3. It takes 4 gallons to flush a toilet
4. It takes 40 gallons to take a shower

23. WATER USES Domestic : drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, etc.
Recreational : swimming, boating.
Commercial : shipping.
Industrial : cooling, canning.
Agriculture : irrigation.
Aquatic life : propagation of fish, shell fish culture,
Stock and wild watering.

24. WATER CONTAMINANTS Physical : odor, turbidity, color, taste.
Biological : bacteria, viruses,parasites.
Chemical :
* Inorganic : arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, chromium, iron, etc.
* Organic : pesticides from agriculture, petrochemical industries.

25. Lead Pipe from City Water Line

26. Biological contaminants
Biological contaminants threat the safety of our global drinking water. Developed nations MUST not regard themselves immune to water borne diseases. One must not forget the 400,000 cases of Cryptosporidiosis in the largest city of Wisconsin in 1995.
This should negate the assumption that Drinking water is safe in the industrialized world.

27. Examples: Diarrheal infections, cholera, typhoid
Water and Excreta Related Infections
I- Water-Borne: Pathogens are present in water supply
Examples: Diarrheal infections, cholera, typhoid
Control : Water Quality and health education
* Health education

28. Water and Excreta Related Infections
II- Water-Based:
The pathogen must spend part of its cycle in water.
Examples: Guinea worm, Schistosomiasis, aquatic Intermediate Host.
Control : * Water quality intermediate host control

29. Water and Excreta Related Infections
III-Water-Washed:
Spread of the Pathogen is affected by the quantity of water available for Hygiene.
Examples: Scabies, trachoma
Control : * Water quantity, soap
* Health education

30. Water and Excreta Related Infections
IV- Water-Related:
The Pathogen is spread by insect that feed and breed in water.
Examples : Malaria, yellow fever
Control :
* Source reduction (water drainage and management), Biological and chemical control
* Health Education

31. Objectives of Water Treatment
Provide water safe for human consumption
Provide water pleasing to the senses
Provide adequate quantities at reasonable prices

32. Conventional Water Treatment Plant
Coagulation
Sedimentation
Filtration
Disinfection
Storage
Distribution

35. A TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT
SPRAY
AERATION
CHLORINATION
CARBON AND
ALUMN OR
FERRIC SULFATE
FLOCCULATION
TANK
FINAL
CHLORINATION
FILTRATION
SETTLING
TANK

36. HOUSEHOLD WATER TREATMENT
WATER NEEDS TO BE TREATED IF :
People refuse to use it because of its color or taste ;
and/or
chemicals or organisms in it might pose a health risk to user.
METHODS
Straining by pouring turbid water through a piece
of fine, clean cotton cloth.
Aeration by vigorous shaking
Storage and settlement by Three Pot Treatment System
Disinfection by :
* Chemical
* Solar disinfection system (SODIS)
* Boiling

37. HOUSEHOLD WATER TREATMENT
METHODS
Coagulation and Flocculation
Filtration :
* Sand Filtration
- Slow sand filtration, the water passes slowly
(eg. Flow velocity of 0.1 to 0.2 m/h)
- Rapid sand filtration, the rate of flow is faster
(conventionally velocity of flow 4 to 8 m/h)

38. Treatment methods * Charcoal filters
It can be quite effective at removing some tastes, odors and color.
* Ceramic filters

39. Treatment methods REDUCING CONCENTRATION OF CHEMICAL DESALINATION
Distillation produces water without chemical salts and
various method, for example to treat sea water.
IRON REMOVAL
Treatment method are being based principally on aeration
followed by filtration.
MANGANESE REMOVAL
Some forms of manganese can be removed by aeration
followed by settlement or filtration.

40. Treatment methods FLUORIDE REMOVAL
“Nalgonda system” in India have had considerable success,
it combines the use of lime to soften water and alum
as a coagulant and followed by settlement.
ARSENIC REMOVAL
The effectiveness of any treatment process depends on
the specific form of arsenic, type of coagulant and
filtration material.
Treatment processes that add lime to soften the water
followed by settlement have been use for some time.

41. Bottled Water Consumption of bottled water is increasing
at a rate of 10% /yr in the last decade.
About 85% of the US population use tap water from public systems.
The other 15% have wells, cisterns and springs.
It is a $ 4 billion business in the US

42. Bottled Water
The cost ranges between $0.65 -$5.00 per gallon which is ,000 times more than municipal water.
It is available from vending machines, grocery stores, dispensers, fast foods, or from door to door delivery
Is the quality of bottled water better than tap water as advertised?

43. Quality of Bottled Water
1,000 bottles of 103 brands of water were tested, about
one-third of the bottles contained synthetic organic chemicals, bacteria, and arsenic.

44. Bottled water. Isn't bottled water safer than tap water?
Is bottled water actually unsafe?
Could the plastic in water bottles pose a health risk?
How can I find out where my bottled water comes from?
How can I determine if bottled water is really just tap water?
What action can I take to improve bottled water safety?
How does drinking bottled water affect the environment?
If I drink tap water should I use a filter and what types of filters are most effective?
How can I obtain test results on my tap water?

45. Types of Bottled Water
Distilled water: this water is flat and tasteless.
Drinking : from springs, wells and treated surface waters . Contains minerals. Treated to destroy pathogens
Natural : bottled with little or no treatment . Contains minerals, treated for pathogens.

46. Types of Bottled Water
Mineral: contains a lot of minerals ppm.
Carbonated : Carbon dioxide is added to give it fizz.

47. CHECKLISTS FOR WATER SOURCES
TUBEWELLS :
1. Is there an impervious, uncracked,concentrate apron to exclude surface water ?.
2. Is the adjacent land drained away from well ?.
3. Is the casing watertight for at least 3 m below ground level ?.
4. Is the pump securely sealed to the apron ?.
5. Does wastewater drain off the apron ?.

48. CHECKLISTS FOR WATER SOURCES
STEP WELL AND IMPROVED STEP WELL :
1. Is there impervious platform (apron) of concrete to
exclude surface water?.
2. Is there a fence to prevent users and animals from entering the
water ?.
3. Could a fence or cover be constructed and the well converted into
drawn or pumped well ?.
4. Are ropes and buckets permanently installed and hygienically stored
5. Could well water be pot chlorinated ?.

49. CHECKLISTS FOR WATER SOURCERS
PROTECTED SPRING SOURCE :
1. Is there a diversion ditch around the spring to
divert surface water ?.
Is the collection structure inaccessible to users
and animals ?.
3. Is adequate drainage provided below the outlet and overflow pipes ?.
Are animals effectively exclude by fencing the
spring area.

50. ROOFWATER HARVESTING
Rainwater collected from roof is usually less polluted than that collected from the ground, and so is more suited to drinking and cooking purposes. It is however, still polluted to some extent by bird droppings, dust and leaves.
Discard the first few rainfalls , to wash the roof , before start collecting in the cistern.

51. Rain Water Domestic Rainwater Harvesting (DRWH)
Advantages : Rainwater collected at the home is more convenient than water carried from a point far from the home.

52. Rain Water Disadvantages :
- Some local difficulties due to its requirements for physical space for storage within a building plot.
- Difficulties in keeping disinfected

53. Methods for Treatment of Individual water supplies:
Filtration:
How To Build A Water Filter:
Use a gallon clean drum( new or previously used for food products)
Drill a " hole at the bottom
Insert a hose in the hole. Use a plug or a clamp
to control the water flow

54. UPFLOW WATER FILTER FINE SAND 24” 6” 3” CLEAN WATER PACKED GRAVEL
UN TREATED
WATER
CEMENT JARS
HOSE
CLEAN WATER
FINE SAND
24”
OUTLET HOSE
PACKED GRAVEL 6”
ROKS 3”
PACKED GRAVEL

55. Packing the drum : a- 6" of small irregular washed rock (size=2-3")
b- 3" of washed gravel
c- 24" of washed sand
d- fill with untreated water
e- draw water through the hose.
f- disinfect : chlorination or solar.

56. Slow Sand Filter/Tulane/GEHS class

57. Water Filter/Tulane/GEHS class

58. Water Filter/Tulane/GEHS class

59. Basket Filter/Tulane /GEHS Class

60. Home Filters There are many including :
* Charcoal, paper, cloth, diatomaceous earth, membrane, ceramic, clay, zeolite,
* Inline filters: Example Refrigerator filters
* Charcoal with a layer of dense cloth

61. Home Filters Functions of this filter: reduces Chlorine by 97.8 %
reduces particulates and cysts by %
reduces Turbidity by %
reduces Lead by 99.3%
reduces 2.4-D (Herbicide) by %
reduces Atrazine (Herbicide) by %
reduces Toxaphene(Insecticide) by 87.5%

62. Water Disinfection Boiling for 10 minutes.
Use of chlorine compounds such as bleach.
Use of iodine compounds such as tetraglycine hydroperiodide

63. Water Disinfection(cont.)
Micro-filtration: filters used are <0.2 micrometer. This eliminates all biological contaminants except extra cellular viruses.
Ozone: it is an oxidizing agent , the same as
chlorine, it is not effective against Giardia and Cryptosporidium unless higher concentrations and longer contact time are used.
Solar disinfection : Ultraviolet light

64. Naegleria fowleri
The amoeba, Naegleria fowleri, is found in warm bodies of fresh water. It attacks the nervous system and brain and almost always results in death.
The brain-eating organism killed a four-year-old Louisiana boy, prompting the state health department to test the water in St Bernard Parish. The result was positive.

65. Naegleria fowleri

66. Health Effects of Chlorination
Chlorine gas ( Cl2 ) vs powder, liquid (Bleach, 5% available chlorine ) .
Formation of Halomethanes, CCl4
The use of Chloramines

67. Chloramines
Ammonia + Chlorine Gas
NH 3 (N-H-H-H) + Cl2 (Cl-Cl)
N-H-H-Cl mono chloamines
N-H-Cl-Cl Dichloramines
N-Cl-Cl-Cl Trichloramines

68. Halomethanes
Cl2 + (CH3 O)2P S2C8O4H12 =
Cl : Cl + C-H = CCl4

69. Regulated Drinking Water Contaminants
Annual Report by Water Treatment Plants
MCL Violation Reported
Fluorides > 4 ppm ppm
Nitrate > 10 ppm 2 pm
Chlorine Residual >4 ppm 1.5 ppm
Trihalomethanes > 80 ppb 41 ppb
Beta emitters
(Radioactivity) >50 pCi/L 3 pCi/L

70. How To Determine Chlorine Dose
A- Chlorine Total 10mg/l
B- Chlorine Demand 8mg/l
C- Chlorine residual 2mg/l

71. Chlorination Steps: 1- Find the dose if it is not given
A. Place a liter of water in 6 containers
B. Add 0,1,2,6,8,10 mg of chlorine powder to each container
C. Mix well and wait for minutes
D. Measure the residual chlorine
E. Use the concentration which produces the residual (~2mg/l)

72. Disinfection/Chlorination
How many pounds of Chlorine powder is required to disinfect a water reservoir :
10 ft wide , 20 ft long and 10 ft deep.
The powder is 70% available chlorine..
DOSE = 10 mg/l
One cubic foot of water = 62.4 pounds

73. Steps 1- Find the volume of water Volume of a square or rectangle
Volume = Area X D = W X L X D
Area 10x = 200sq.ft
200sq.ft x 10ft = 2000 cu.ft\
Volume = 10ft x 20ft x 10ft = 2000 cu ft

74. Steps Volume = 2000 cu ft Each cubic foot of water = 62.4 lbs
2000 x = lbs
Dose is 10 mg/l =10 ppm (Parts Per Million)
124,800 X 10 = 1.24 lb
1000,000

75. Steps
If the reservoir is 100 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep. Dose 10 mg/l
Volume of a cylinder = area X Depth
Area =  X (radius)2
Radius = (diameter/2)2

76. Steps Volume = 3.14 X (100/2)2 X Depth = 3.14 X 2500ft X 10ft
= 78,500 cu ft
Each cubic foot of water = 62.4 lbs
Dose is 10mg/l = 10 ppm(10 Parts Per Million)
78500 cu ft X 62.4 lbs/cu ft = 4,898,400 lbs
4,898,400 X = 49 lbs
1,000,000

77. Drawbacks of Chlorine and Boiling
Availability and Costs of chlorine compounds
In case of boiling we need ONE kilogram of WOOD to boil ONE LITER of water. This will add to the deforestation , erosion of soil and decrease in food production .

78. Water Solar Disinfection
Therefore, the use of sunlight as :
available and FREE
is appropriate especially in Developing Countries.

79. A field trial in Matagalpa, Nicaragua Agency for Environmental Health

80. ABSTRACT
SODIS was introduced to two rural communities in rural Nicaragua
Families were educated about SODIS and half-black painted bottles were distributed at each household (HH)
Samples were taken from HH water recipients and SODIS disinfected water and tested for fecal coliforms. (% reduction)

81. JUSTIFICATION OF SODIS
Contaminated drinking water as a transmitter of pathogens affecting human health
Problems with other treatment methods
Boiling requires energy, which in rural areas is usually supplied in the form of firewood

82. Chlorine is often rejected due to undesirable taste and poses a problem with respect to their reliable supply, timely distribution and correct dosage.
SODIS is considered an effective, practical and simple alternative that relies on solar energy as the basis of this low-cost tech.

83. LIMITATIONS OF SODIS Is not useful to treat large volumes of water
Requires relatively clear water (turbidity less than 30 NTU)
Does not change the chemical water quality
Needs solar radiation (under 100% cloudy sky needs 2 days exposure)

84. Interview with female head of household

85. Recommended Containers
Clear plastic containers
Plastic vs. Glass
Size (optimum size is 1-3 liters)

86. Gathering of Recycled Bottles

87. Distribution of Bottles
Number of bottles per hh determined according to WHO standard for daily water consumption. (4L/adult and 1L/child)
Using feed sacks

88. Cleaning of Recycled Bottles
Removal of labels
Sniff Test
Plastic bottles are often reused for household cleaning solutions or gasoline/oil

89. Half-blackened bottles

91. Bacterial inactivation rate dependent upon:
Intensity of the sun
Latitude and geographic location
Time of year and time of day
Meteorological conditions (cloudiness, humidity)
Exposure time (5 hours on sunny day, 2 days if cloudy)

92. Characteristics of Container
Material
Dimensions (UV radiation is reduced with increasing water depth)
Contaminated Water
Turbidity
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen and nutrients
Type of Bacteria exposed

93. SODIS EDUCATION
Distribution of SODIS brochure at each hh using picrograms
Community water sanitation education
SODIS demonstration at household

94. TESTING OF VILLAGE WATER SOUCES
Covered well with manual pump
Covered well with rope pump
Test result: FC 0/100ml
Test result: FC 0/100ml

95. TESTING OF VILLAGE WATER SOURCES
Water hole
Uncovered well
Test result: FC 430/100ml
Test result: FC >480/100ml
Natural spring
Test result:
FC 2000/100ml

98. Cleaning of Recycled Bottles
Using hot water and chlorine
Drying bottles in the sun

99. SODIS USE

100. SODIS USE
Those with high roofs developed other strategies for bottle supports

101. EVALUATION
At each hh, an adult was asked for a sample of SODIS treated water and for a sample of non-SODIS treated water from the hh storage recipient.
Sample taken directly from SODIS bottles
Sample taken from a cup

102. LABORATORY Using Membrane Filter Method (0-.45 microns)
Transport of samples
Samples gathered using Whirlpaks
Using Membrane Filter Method (0-.45 microns)

103. LAB RESULTS
33/64 hh (52%) had a 100% reduction in fecal coliforms (FC)
56/64 hh (88%) had at least a 85% reduction in fecal coliforms
41/64 hh (64%) fell below the WHO standard of <10FC/100ml for safe drinking water

104. Of the 23 hh that did not meet the WHO criteria for safe drinking water, 14 had starting fecal counts of 2000 FC/100ml and showed and average 91% reduction in FC

105. Solar Disinfection(Laboratory Controlled )
When unchlorinated batches of water inoculated with one type of Enteric
bacteria obtained from pure cultures were exposed to sunlight in 300 ml Pyrex flasks, the time required for complete destruction of each organisms was found to be as
follows:

106. Time Required For Complete Destruction of:
P. aerugenosa = 15 minutes
S. typhi = 60 minutes
E. coli = 75 minutes
S. paratyphi B = 90 minutes
Coliform bacteria = 80 minutes

107. Solar Disinfection(cont.)
These results indicate that, since coliform bacteria and E.coli are somewhat resistant to lethal effects of sunlight,
They can serve as useful indicators in assessing the effects of sunlight on enteric bacteria except S. paratyphi B.

108. The end

109. Water Disinfection in case of Emergency (cont.)
Dosage of Laundry Bleach Solution (usually contains - 5% available chlorine)
(1) (2)
Water Volume Clear Water Cloudy Water
¼ (Quart) drops drops
½ (2 Quarts) drops drops
1 Gallon drops drops
minutes chlorine contact time
minutes chlorine contact time

110. International Bacteriological Standards.
World Health Organization
* Treated piped water
* disinfected /100 ml
* not disinfected <3/100 ml
* Non-piped Water <10/100 ml
European /100 ml
United States
Treated <1/100 ml

111. Maximum Contaminant Levels (mg/l)
Antimony 0.006
Arsenic
Cadmium 0.005
Chromium 0.05
Mercury
Sulfates 250
Chlorides 250

112. Organic Water Standards
Atrazine ppm 2.0 ppb
Glyphosate ppm 700 ppb
PCB’s Polychlorinated Biphenyls
ppm 0.5 ppb

113. Radionuclides Gross Alpha 15 pCi /L, if gross Alpha is
greater than 5 pCi/L , analyze for Radium 226
and Radium 228. Their total should not exceed
5 pCi/L
Gross Beta 50 pCi/L, if Gross Beta is greater
than 8 pCi/L, analyze for Strontium 90, if Gross Beta is greater than 50 pCi/L, analyze for
Tritium and other man-made nuclides.

114. Aircraft Drinking water
Drinking water standards are designed for stationary water systems and not mobile aircraft water systems . Separate rules have been developed to make aircraft drinking water safe.

115. AirCraft Water These rules were needed because :
They fly multiple destinations and may board drinking water from sources at any of these destinations
The quality of the water might be of concern
The transfer of water to the aircraft such as trucks, hoses etc.
Water Dispensers on the aircraft

116. Aircraft Drinking water
Notification of passengers and crew onboard the aircraft is required when:
► Any sample results are total coliform-positive or E. coli-positive.
► An air carrier fails to perform required routine disinfection and flushing.
► An air carrier fails to collect required samples.
► An air carrier boards water from a watering point that does not meet FDA regulations, EPA standards,
or is otherwise determined to be unsafe.

117. Aircraft Drinking water
EPA, the air carrier, or crew determines public notification is necessary to protect public health.
For E. coli-positive events or when EPA, the air carrier, or crew determines public notification is necessary, notice
must be issued within 24 hours. For all other situations, notice must be issued within 72 hours.
► Notice to passengers need not be provided if the water is shut off, if flow of water to taps is prevented,
or if water is supplied only to the lavatory toilets and not the lavatory or galley .

118. Arsenic Filter in Bangladesh