1. DIVING Problem To Breath Air for living
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
Problem
To Breath Air for living
and live in a habitat without Air
Solution
Air Supply or
Breath hold

2. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Adaptations to diving of air-breathing marine vertebrates can be divided into 2 categories,
1 – adaptations to pressure,
2 – adaptations to breath-hold.
1 have to deal with mechanical effects and the increased solubility of gas.
2 involve metabolism, blood flow and an increased oxygen storage capacity

3. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Adaptations to pressure have to deal with its mechanical effects and the increased solubility of gas.
The mechanical effect is associated with the collapse of air-filled spaces.
The direct effect of pressure on cellular processes (nervous cells, organs, membranes) is an issue at relatively high depths (500–1000 m). For example, a 10 L lung at the surface (1 atm) has a volume of 5 L at 10 m (2 atm) and of < 1 L at 100 m depth, (11 atm and the volume 1/11 of its original size).

4. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Most marine mammals possess specialized structures and in their lungs that allow the alveoli to collapse first.
These structures may also aid in re-inflation of the lung. Specialized surfactants aid in post-dive re-inflation of the lung.
A similar problem occurs with the air cavity associated with the middle ear, (middle ear squeeze).
marine mammals have specialized cavernous sinuses in the middle ear that presumably engorge with blood as the animal dives and thus fills the air space.

5. DIVING High Pressure Nervous Syndrome
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
High Pressure Nervous Syndrome
The human nervous system shows up as tremors at 150 m,
and convulsions at 500 m.
This is referred to as HPNS.
The great majority of marine
mammals and seabirds do not
experience HPNS. However,
elephant seals, sperm whales
and beaked whales routinely
dive to depths m,
susceptible to HPNS.
There are no data on whether
these animals do encounter
HPNS, how they tolerate it, or avoid it.

6. DIVING Diseases associated with gases
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Diseases associated with gases
At high partial pressures, Increased
concentrations of N2 causes
euphoria and delusions (nitrogen
narcosis) in humans. O2 is toxic
at partial pressures greater than
1 atm (blackout and death).
When a scuba diver breathing air from a bottle, returns to the surface, in decreasing pressure, the gas flows out from the tissue into the blood.
If the diver does not give sufficient time to the gas to slowly come out (decompress), the gas will form bubbles.
Marine mammals, unlike human divers, exclusively breath-hold dive. Some of them allow their lungs to collapse during the dive. As the lung collapses, air passes into the large bronchioles and trachea where gas uptake cannot occur.

7. DIVING Symptoms consistent with
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Symptoms consistent with
decompression sickness have been reported in human pearl divers undergoing prolonged repetitive
breath-hold dives.
Penguins, sea lions and fur seals
repetitively dive.
It is unclear how they avoid the decompression sickness as they make repeated dives to significant depths over a period of many hours or even days.
Among the repetitively diving animal, only Tursiops truncatus has relatively high levels of N2 in muscle tissue, but it was unclear whether the levels of muscle N2 were sufficiently high as to cause bubble formation, if there is any mechanisms to keep the N2 in the tissue, or whether there is any tolerance to N2 bubbles if they forms.

8. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Interestingly, histological observations of bone necrosis in sperm whales are consistent with symptoms associated with decompression sickness.
Similar observations of mosasaurs and plesiosaurs also suggest that they suffered decompression sickness.
Considerable concern exists whether diving mammals are more susceptible to the bends when they are exposed to military sonars. The sonar stimulates bubble formation and/or elicit aberrant diving behavior that results in acute and severe decompression sickness.

9. DIVING Physiological adaptations to diving increased myoglobin levels,
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Physiological adaptations to diving
increased myoglobin levels,
high red blood cell density,
larger numbers of mitochondria,
decreased capillary number,
and/or increased energy conservation.
Weddell seals save energy and Oxygen at great depths by primarily gliding rather than swimming.
Despite partial pressure of Oxygen in the blood < 30 mmHg (causes of blackout to humans), seals continue to function without difficulty because they have much higher levels of haemoglobin in their blood than do terrestrial mammals. Nearly all of the blood is supplied to the brain, spinal cord, eyes, and adrenal glands. The blood supply to the muscles is limited, or completely halted, during lengthy dives.

10. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Seals reduce the beat heart rate (from bpm to 15 bpm) during a long dive. If a seal runs out of O2, it then converts glucose to lactic acid. Weddells and other seals even have extra-big spleens to store erithrocites that are released during a dive. 

11. DIVING Redistribution of blood flow
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Redistribution of blood flow
The dive response is also associated with bradycardia.
This in turn results in an overall reduction in metabolism, as the work of many organs is reduced.
A novel adaptation to keep blood pressure while the heart rate is reduced is the highly elastic aorta.
The aorta of true seals
is highly elastic and
stores some of the
energy with each
heartbeat and releases
it over the intervening
period, thus keeping
the blood pressure
constant

12. DIVING Large eyes in seals are an underwater adaptation.
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Large eyes in seals are an underwater adaptation.
Seals have flattened corneas and pupils that can open wide to let in light while swimming.
Seal's eyes consist only of rods that work great in low light, (no cones to detect color).
Seals don't take a huge breath but they do hyperventilate before a dive.
They store the Oxygen in their blood and muscles and expel the air from the lungs.
Seals have more blood than land animals of a similar size, plus more hemoglobin to carry Oxygen.

13. DIVING PELAGOS BIOLOGY
It exists a kind of ‘internal scuba tank’ composed of three primary compartments, lung, muscles, and blood.
The muscles and blood of diving vertebrates have greater concentrations of myoglobin. (10–30 times greater than in their terrestrial relatives).
both a larger amount of blood and a greater proportion of erithrocites in the blood is available.
haematocrit in humans : 41–50% for males and % for females. In diving mammals: %.
Similarly, in humans the blood volume is 7% body mass, while the blood volume of diving mammals is %.
The highest values belong to the longer, deeper, diving mammals like elephant seals and sperm whales.

14. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
All the energy is used to protect the seal's critical parts and pieces, like its heart and brain. A seal's core body temperature is around 38 °C
Seals can skip the capillary bed entirely. They can dilate special blood vessels that are near the surface of the skin, which lets warm blood reach the surface quickly to be cooled.
Seals return cooled blood to their internal body allows heat extraction.

15. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Penguins have special adaptations that allow them to dive. They have webbed feet, and their vision is believed to be better underwater than in air. Their wings help them swim and dive in the water.
Penguins' wing bones are fused straight, rather than angled like a flying bird's,
hence rigid and powerful.
Penguins have solid bones.
These act as ballast helping
them dive.
Penguins have high levels
of myoglobin in the muscles.

16. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Penguin feathers are short and packed together tightly, to exclude water from the skin and to create a smooth surface to lower drag. The feathers are coated with oil from a gland near the tail to increase the "waterproof" factor.
  Penguins are able to raise
their feathers to allow
warmth to escape.
They also have numerous
tiny capillaries close to
the skin surface on their
wings, which allows extra
heat to escape simply
extending their wings.
Penguins release heat also
through their feet. 

17. DIVING Animals generally do not dive to their maximum possibilities.
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Animals generally do not dive
to their maximum possibilities.
They do not go deeper than
where the preys are
(most, less than 200 m).
Deep dives require more time
than shallow dives.
The longest dives are usually
relatively shallow as the animal swims as little as possible often passively sinking.
This probably reduces the metabolism to the greatest extent possible to get the longest dive possible.

18. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
whales of the family Balaenopteridae feed by engulfing entire schools of (small) prey. The whale then expels the water through its baleen plates, retaining the krill in its mouth.
Drag, and an increased effort, is necessary to swim with an open mouth through the water.
Given their feeding behavior , blue whales and their kin have a very costly method of feeding that uses Oxygen rapidly.

19. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Dive depth is not related with duration, nor with the body mass.
First, some animals are simply poor divers.
A possible example is the Bearded Seal, Erignathus barbatus, which weighs 350 kg but dives to an average of 17 m in shallow Arctic waters, and remains submerged for only 120 sec.

20. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Second, species equipped with larger spleens or larger blood volumes for their size tend to dive more deeply and for longer.
Third, it is possible that
the diving ability of
certain species is simply
unknown.
Some species may work
well within their
physiological
limits because food is
relatively easy to
obtain or there is little
competition for food.

21. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
Benthic feeding otariids often undertake dives beyond their calculated aerobic dive limits.
Tufted Ducks prefer
to dive under natural
conditions for 20 sec
but could be trained
to dive repeatedly for
over 40 sec
to obtain food.
Surface duration.
The amount of time a
species spends
recovering and/or
preparing from/for a dive, depends on the time spent under water absolutely, but also on the depth of a dive.

22. DIVING The metabolic cost. The air volume within the body and the
PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
The metabolic cost.
The air volume within the body and the
lipid presence are the 2 main factors
determining buoyancy and thus the
energy costs of the different phases.
For positively buoyant animals the
descent phase of a dive is usually
the most expensive.
However, the deeper these animals
descend, the less buoyant they
become owing to the compression
of the air.
Some animals adjust the Oxygen stores in their lungs depending upon the duration of the dive they anticipate undertaking, which in turn can affect their buoyancy and hence the cost incurred by it throughout the dive.

23. PELAGOS BIOLOGY
DIVING
A deep dive is more expensive than a shallow one for a given dive duration. This suggests that divers may tend to dive
to the shallower possible
depth because of the
trade-off between rate
of prey capture and the
increased metabolic
expense of deeper dives.
This agrees with the
model of optimal
foraging depth, which
predicts that diving
animals should choose
to forage at a depth that
is always shallower than the depth at which prey abundance is highest.
Even if that species is physiologically capable of reaching the depth of densest prey, its diving behavior might limit dive depth further to optimize foraging efficiency.

24. Examination (2 steps)
81 questions (questionnaire) with triple choice (answers). Time, 75 min.
Minimum score to pass the examination = 42 (18/30); 30/30 for > 71 points;
+ 1 point = 1 correct answer;
- 1 point = 2 non correct answers
B) Oral presentation (time 15 min), .ppt file, on a subject from the program (minimum score to pass the examination = 18; maximum 30)
The total score will be the average of the two subscores

25. …….. texts ….. isolated texts, forgiven texts (Miles & Tout, 1998)
….. close to the object/image (Bitgood et al., 1989)

26. colors….
buon contrasto
disturbo
poco contrasto
disturbo

27. Elementi: layout
The layout
Page grid: minimum possible number of axis (horizontal – vertical)

28. lettering (Fioravanti, 2002; Bistagnino e Vallino, 2001; Iliprandi et al., 2004a, 2004b)
small case favours the word recognition, otherwise the reading is slowed (Carrada, 2000)
I Musei scientifici sono luoghi di mediazione culturale, luoghi, cioè, in cui i contenuti vengono rimaneggiati e spesso semplificati per poter essere facilmente compresi dal grande pubblico
I MUSEI SCIENTIFICI SONO LUOGHI DI MEDIAZIONE CULTURALE, LUOGHI, CIOÈ, IN CUI I CONTENUTI VENGONO RIMANEGGIATI E SPESSO SEMPLIFICATI PER POTER ESSERE FACILMENTE COMPRESI DAL GRANDE PUBBLICO
I Musei scientifici sono luoghi di mediazione culturale, luoghi, cioè, in cui i contenuti vengono rimaneggiati e spesso semplificati per poter essere facilmente compresi dal grande pubblico

29. Letter’s size evidences the relative importance of the written message

30. Elementi: lettering
Arrangement of the text is important to avoid inhestetisms (Serrell, 1996)
I Musei scientifici sono luoghi di mediazione culturale, luoghi, cioè, in cui i contenuti vengono rimaneggiati e spesso semplificati per poter essere facilmente compresi dal grande pubblico e soprattutto dai giovani che li visitano.
I Musei scientifici sono luoghi di mediazione culturale, luoghi, cioè, in cui i contenuti vengono rimaneggiati e spesso semplificati per poter essere facilmente compresi dal grande pubblico e soprattutto dai giovani che li visitano.

31. scrittura in verticale di difficile lettura

32. Pelegos Biology activities
Irene Candido
student
Anita Liparoto
student

33. Pelagos Biology activities
Riccardo Russo student

34. AVAILABLE POSITION FOR THESIS
Zooplankton features in the Taranto sea system ( )
Organism size differences
Spatial heterogeneity

35. AVAILABLE POSITION FOR THESIS
Mesozooplankton features in the south Adriatic ( )
Living and dead biomass
Coastal differences
16c

36. Not properly for PELAGOS BIOLOGY
Colonization of enclosed submerged environments (with tests in aquarium lab)
Biostalactites genesis and composition
Management of Scientific Museums and promotion of Natural History

37. 30 min. front test Systematics of the marine zoo-pelagos
Do you know what animal is in the water? 30 min. entrance test
30 min. front test

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