1. AP U.S. Government and Politics Comprehensive Review Spring 2017
Gardner

2. Exam Topics Constitutional Underpinnings
Historical development and adoption of the Constitution
Separation of Powers
Checks and Balances
Federalism
Theories of Modern Government
Political Beliefs and Behaviors
Theories of government – elite, pluralist, hyperpluralist
Views that people have about government and elected officials
Characteristics and impact of public opinion
Voting patterns of citizens
Characteristics of political beliefs and the differences between liberals and conservatives
Political Parties, Interest Groups and Mass Media
Characteristics, organization, and history of political parties
Impact of key elections
Voting patterns
Laws that affect elections
Interest groups and political action committees
Legislation affecting the political process
The mass media and its effect on politics

3. Exam Topics Continued Institutions of National Government
Characteristics and power of each branch
Relationships among each institution
Linkage between these institutions and the political process, political parties, interest groups, the media, and public opinion
How public policy is formulated and implemented
Public Policy
The nature of public policy
The creation of public policy
The impact of the three branches of government on public policy
The relationship between public policy and linkage institutions
Civil Rights and Civil Liberties
The Bill of Rights and how it evolved
The incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment
Judicial Review and key Supreme Court cases
The fight for minority rights

4. FRQ Verbs According to the College Board
Identify: provide a specific answer, which does not require causal explanation
Define: provide a specific meaning for a word or concept
Describe: show understanding of a particular concept or political phenomenon
Explain: demonstrate understanding of how or why a relationship exists by clearly articulating the logical connection or causal pattern between or among various political phenomena
Compare: provide an explicit statement which connects two or more concepts

5. Let’s Practice on an FRQ from 2014
Congress and the president both have a role in making foreign policy. Despite recent expansions in presidential power, there are still limits on presidential decision making in foreign policy.
Describe two enumerated powers Congress has in making foreign policy.
(b) Describe two expressed powers the president has in making foreign policy.
(c) Explain how executive agreements expand the president’s ability to implement foreign policy.
(d) Explain how one of the following can limit the president’s ability to implement foreign policy.
x Elections
x Presidential approval ratings

6. Democracy
The United States is a representative democracy – we elect representatives to make political decisions for us
5 Characteristics of Democracy
Equal right to vote
Opportunities for effective political participation
Enlightened understanding – the public should be informed and make informed decisions
Citizen control of the political agenda
Social inclusion
Majority rule – decisions are made by a vote of the majority to reflect the will of the largest percentage of citizens
Pluralist Theory – the political system is composed of groups representing competing interests
Power is decentralized so that no one body or group has too much influence over policymaking
Elite and Class Theory – government favors only a narrow percentage of the public, primarily the wealthy. Wealth is the main cause of political influence
Hyperpluralism – The proliferation of political groups has weakened the government; policies are often made by “sub-governments” of “iron triangles”, composed of interest groups, the bureaucracies that regulate these groups, and the Congressional committees that oversee these bureaucracies

7. Challenges to Democracy
Increased technical expertise
An increase in the knowledge base makes it difficult for average citizens to make informed decisions
Limited participation in government
Citizens do not take full advantage of participation opportunities, as demonstrated by poor voter turnout
Escalating campaign costs
An increase in the costs of running for office makes candidates increasingly dependent on PACs and are further removed from democratic theory
Diverse political interests
Diversity of population can lead to weak coalitions, which may result in policy gridlock

8. The Constitution Declaration of Independence
Lists grievances against the king of England, justifies revolution, and mentions the idea of natural rights
John Locke, Thomas Hobbes & Baron de Montesquieu
Rights are derived from people’s basic moral sense
Consent of the governed – a government is legitimate only if the people approve of it (Social Contract – Locke)
Limited government – because natural rights are superior to a government, governments should have limited power
Government should protect people’s property
Separation of Powers – 3 branches (Montesquieu)
Articles of Confederation - Established first government for the US in 1781 (Weaknesses listed below)
Unicameral national legislature
No executive or judicial institutions
Most power rests with the States
No power to tax
No regulation of foreign or interstate trade
No national currency
No national defense
Shays’ Rebellion – could not be easily quelled because the government had no power to raise a militia
The Philadelphia Convention
Factions should not be allowed to create political conflict
Government should protect the people

9. Constitutional Convention
Equal Representation
Virginia Plan – proposed that representation in the national Congress should be determined by the population of each State
New Jersey Plan – each State should be allowed the same number of representatives in the national Congress
The Connecticut Compromise/The Great Compromise –
Senate would include two representatives from each State
House of Representatives would be based on the population of each State
Three-Fifths Compromise – only three-fifths of slaves would be counted in determining a State’s population (later repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment)
Madisonian Model
James Madison warned that both the majority and the minority factions could pose a threat to the stability of a government
The president would be chosen by the Electoral College
Three branches: executive, legislative and judicial
System of checks and balances
Establishing a federal system of government, where power is shared between the national and State levels of government

10. Anti-Federalists and Federalists
Feared that the Constitution favored an elite minority
Believed that the Constitution failed to protect too many individual freedoms
Believed that a strong central government would limit the power of the States
Published scathing articles and political cartoons denouncing the Constitution
Federalists
Published a series of articles called the Federalist Papers to defend the Constitution
Asserted that the Constitution would benefit the growing middle class of tradesmen as well at the wealthy plantation owners
Promised to add a bill of rights to guarantee individual liberties
The Constitution was ratified in 1878, largely because the authors promised to add a bill of rights
The Constitution established the United States as a federal republic in which power would be divided among levels of government
The Constitution is considered a “living document” because it can be amended as the United States grows and changes

11. Amending the Constitution
Formal Amendment Process
Proposal:
by Congress with a 2/3 vote in each House, or by National Convention called by 2/3 of States
Ratification:
By ¾ of State legislatures or by Conventions in ¾ of the States
Informal Amendment Process
Judicial interpretation – established in Marbury v. Madison
Changing political practice, technology, and increased demands on policymakers

12. Federalism
Federalism – government is divided between the national and State/local levels
Federal Government – government is divided into more than one level (U.S., Germany, Canada and India have federal governments)
Unitary Government – Only one central government has authority over a nation (Japan, France, and Great Britain all operate under unitary governments)
Confederation – An association of states with some authority delegated to a national government (rare today, but some of the former Soviet republics have stayed in union with Russia)
Decentralized Government – A federal system of government decentralized power
Opportunities for political participation at all levels
Public involvement – citizens elect officials at many levels
Access – a greater number of interests can be represented across levels
Decisions can be made at lower levels, allowing the federal government to concentrate more fully on fewer issues
Parties function at different levels
Intergovernmental relations become especially important in a federal system because of the elaborate communication necessary to share power

13. Powers of Government Powers Reserved for the Federal Government
Powers Reserved for State Governments
Powers Shared by Federal and State Governments
Coin money
Create local level of government
Make and enforce laws
Regulate the economy and foreign and interstate trade
Regulate intrastate commerce
Collect taxes
Declare war
Hold elections
Maintain courts
Manage national military
Ratify amendments
Allocate money for public needs
Direct foreign relations
Conduct social policymaking
Propose amendments
Enumerated/Expressed powers – Powers for the federal government that are listed in the Constitution
Implied powers – Powers of the federal government that go beyond the enumerated powers in the Constitution.
Elastic Clause - Allows Congress to make all laws “Necessary and Proper”

14. Constitutional Basis of Federalism
Supremacy Clause – asserts the authority of the national government over the States. Federal laws will supersede State laws
Enumerated Powers – Powers granted to the national government, listed in the Constitution
Tenth Amendment – located in the Bill of Rights, grants all powers not specifically reserved for the national government to the States
Implied Powers – Established in McCulloch v. Maryland; Gives Congress the authority to pass any laws necessary to carry out its duties as enumerated in the Constitution = Elastic Clause, or Necessary and Proper Clause
Full Faith and Credit Clause – Requires each State to formally recognize the documents and judgments handed down by courts in other States
Extradition – Requires the return of fugitive criminals arrested in one State to the State in which the crime was committed for prosecution
Privileges and Immunities Clause – Helps unify the states by assuring that all citizens are treated equally when they travel from state to state

15. Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism
1. Permits diversity in policy making‑ can also protect the liberty of those at the state and local powers.
2. Local governments will be able to handle local problems‑they are more in touch with the people anyway.
3. There are more levels of access to political participation‑ allows for pluralism and democracy.
4. Increases experimentation with policy‑ welfare, education, crime control, etc.
Disadvantages
Makes national unity and consensus difficult to reach.
Local governments may tolerate economic or political inequality.
Local or state governments may openly block federal policies
May promote hyper‑pluralism or extensive factionalism (tyranny of the majority

16. Types of Federalism
Cooperative
Dual
Dual Federalism (layer cake) – each level of government has distinct responsibilities that do not overlap
Cooperative Federalism (marble cake) – levels of government share responsibilities, costs and administration
Fiscal Federalism – The system of distributing federal money to State governments in the form of categorical or block grants
Mandates – Congress creates financial obligations for the States, and sometimes, Congress does not provide funding (unfunded mandate)
Devolution – transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to State and local governments

17. Eras of Federalism
Marshall Era up to Civil War:
McCulloch – established supremacy clause and implied powers of the federal government
Gibbons – dealt with interstate commerce
Taney Era (Civil War to FDR) Dual Federalism (layer cake)
Dred Scott
Plessy v. Ferguson
States given a lot of power under Taney court
FDR, JFK, LBJ – Cooperative Federalism (marble cake)
Gideon v Wainwright
Brown v. Board
Criminals’ rights
States must comply with federal guidelines

18. Eras of Federalism Continued
New Federalism (Nixon through George W. Bush)
Devolution – power being transferred to the states
U.S. v. Lopez
Printz v. United States
Cooperative/Coerced Federalism (9/11 – Current)
No Child Left Behind
Race to the Top
Common Core

19. Types of Grants ALL GRANTS COME WITH STRINGS ATTACHED
Categorical grants (Grants‑in‑aid)
Can be used for several hundred specific purposes or categories (i.e., school lunches)
Block grants
Given more or less automatically to States or communities to support broad programs such as “community development” or “social services” (Gives States more power deciding where/how to spend the money)
Project grants
Awarded on the basis of competitive applications and for a specific purpose
Crossover sanctions: using federal dollars in one program to influence State and local policy in another (i.e., withholding highway funds unless states raise the drinking age to 21)
Funded v. Unfunded mandates:
Funded – Congress appropriates funds to help states pay for new policies
Unfunded – Congress passes a law and states must comply, even if they do not receive funds for it

20. States’ Obligations to Each Other
Full Faith and Credit – Article IV Section 1, requires each state to recognize the official documents and civil judgments rendered by the courts in other states
Extradition – A legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed
Privileges and Immunities – Citizens of each state have most of the privileges of citizens of another state in which they happen to be

21. Civil Liberties and Public Policy
Fourteenth Amendment – Bill of Rights now applies to State and local governments, not just the federal government (Selective Incorporation/Incorporation Doctrine)
Incorporation Doctrine –Gitlow v. New York, Gibbons v. Ogden
Freedom of Religion:
Establishment Clause – Prohibits Congress from making laws establishing any religion
Lemon v. Kurtzman – The Supreme Court allowed federal funding of parochial (religious) schools provided that the money neither advances nor inhibits religious teaching, but instead is used for administrative purposes. In Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, the Court permitted State vouchers to be used for parochial schools
Engel v. Vitale – forbade the practice of prayer in school
Free Exercise Clause – guarantees the freedom to practice or not practice any religion
Freedom of Expression – libel, slander and obscene speech are not permitted
Prior restraint – forbidden – government censorship of the press BEFORE something is published, unless national security might be compromised
Schenck v. United States – freedom of speech may be curtailed when it threatens public order
Texas v. Johnson – symbolic speech, like flag burning, is protected
Freedom of Assembly – includes the right to protest, picket, or hold a demonstration

22. Selective Incorporation
Selective- a piecemeal process, not a sudden change
Incorporation- the application of the liberties listed in the Bill of Rights to the states via the due process clause of the 14th Amendment.
Remember, the 14th Amendment is The constitutional amendment adopted after the Civil War that states, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the US; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
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Watch the Two Teachers explain it:

23. Defendants’ Rights
Fourth Amendment – no unreasonable searches or seizures
Police investigators cannot search private property without a search warrant
Probable Cause – the police cannot arrest someone unless there is probable cause to believe that he or she is guilty
Exclusionary Rule – prevents prosecutors from using evidence acquired through unreasonable search and seizure Mapp v. Ohio
Fifth Amendment – protects people from being forced to supply evidence against themselves
Miranda v. Arizona – Established that suspects must be informed of their Constitutional rights before they are questioned by police
Sixth Amendment – guarantees that all accused persons tried in a federal court have the right to be represented by an attorney; Gideon v. Wainwright extends this privilege to cases tried in State courts as well
Eighth Amendment – cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited; Gregg v. Georgia – the Supreme Court confirmed that the death penalty does not violate the Bill or Rights, and it is not cruel or unusual

24. Civil Rights and Public Policy
Dred Scott v. Sanford – the Court upheld the constitutionality of slavery and forbade Congress from banning it in new States
Thirteenth Amendment – outlawed slavery
Fifteenth Amendment – allowed African Americans to vote
Hindered by poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clause, and white primaries
Plessy v. Ferguson – The Supreme Court officially recognized a policy of separate but equal, allowing segregation
Brown v. Board of Education – Court overturned Plessy decision, ruling that segregation is unconstitutional
Twenty-Fourth Amendment – outlawed poll taxes
Nineteenth Amendment – allowed women to vote
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – protects disabled Americans against job discrimination and requires employers to provide “reasonable accommodations”
Affirmative Action – a policy that attempted to go beyond preventing discrimination and provide members of groups who have suffered discrimination some compensatory treatment

25. Public Opinion and Political Action
Census – taken every ten years, and afterwards, seats in the House of Represented are reapportioned
Political Socialization – how people learn about politics
Family
Mass media
School
Religious groups
Polls – the most common means of assessing public opinion
Random sample – group that statistically represents the whole population of the United States
Random digit dialing – used to draw telephone samples
Sampling error - confidence in poll results
Exit polls- are conducted by media as voters leave the voting booth; used to predict the outcomes of elections
Ideologies
Conservatism favors limited government and freedom of the private sector; more likely to support military spending, free markets, reduced taxes, opposes abortion and government spending on social issues
Liberalism – favors an active central government with social and economic responsibilities, more equal distribution of wealth, more government regulation of big business, more government spending on social programs, supports a woman’s right to choose, opposes defense spending and tax breaks for the wealthy

26. Participating in Politics
Gender Gap – women tend to vote for a Democratic candidate
Socioeconomic Status – traditionally, people of higher socioeconomic classes tend to be conservative, however, this trend seems to be declining
Voter turnout – has been declining over the last few decades, though it is still the most common way people participate in politics
Campaign Contributions – people donate money to candidates
Protest and Civil Disobedience – other forms of participation
Education and Socioeconomic Levels – people with higher levels of education and in a higher socioeconomic class are much more likely to participate in politics

27. Mass Media and Political Agenda
Mass Media has a profound impact on politics. Politicians are highly visible to the public, and this has both negative and positive consequences for policymakers, campaigns, and the public’s trust in government.
Press conferences – a common means by which presidents convey their goals and opinions to the public
Investigative journalism – trying to uncover political or personal scandals
Narrowcasting – cable television encourages narrowcasting, which allows viewers to select what information they do and do not want to see
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) – regulatory agency that monitors the use of the air waves
Internet – The Internet has made political information easily accessible, however, few Americans are taking advantage of the technology to be better-informed citizens
Beats – Journalists usually have regular beats, such as the White House, Senate, Pentagon, etc.
Trial balloons – information deliberately leaked in order to see how the public feels about an issue
Sound bites – information is reported in sound bites, which gloss over the complexity of issues and focus the public’s attention on politicians rather than on their policies
Bias – a factor in determining what news is reported and what is not
Public Agenda – the mass media has enormous influence over this. They select what issues to focus on, and in doing so, news organizations define which are the most pressing political topics

28. Political Parties
Political parties are the main vehicles for nominating candidates and running campaigns.
Linkage institutions – helps bring the concerns of the electorate to the political arena
Rational-choice theory – assumes that individuals act in their best interest and weigh the costs and benefits of possible alternatives
Party identification – many voters cast their ballots on the basis of which party they identify most closely with
Ticket splitting – voting for members of different parties for different offices in an election; Independents are the most likely to split their ticket
National Committee – writes the official party platform and holds the national convention through which a presidential and vice presidential candidate are nominated
Party realignment – when a party redefines itself and attracts a new coalition of voters
Party dealignment – means that people are gradually moving away from both parties
Party in the Government – members in the government who pass legislation
Party in the Electorate – responsible for party image and shape people’s party identification

29. Political Party Eras
Federalist Party ( )– first American political party started by Alexander Hamilton
Democrats and Whigs ( ) – Andrew Jackson appealed to the masses rather than to the elite, and formed the Democratic Party.
Two Republican Eras ( ) – Republicans arose in late 1850s as the anti-slavery party, and gained popularity again in 1896
New Deal Coalition ( ) – formed when FDR brought the Democratic Party back into favor by starting scores of federal programs to combat the Great Depression
Southern Realignment (1968-present) – an era of divided government; started with Richard Nixon, and focused on States’ rights and law and order
Third Parties – occasionally, third parties arise to challenge the two major parties, but they rarely gain enough support to put a candidate in office
Winner-take-all System – an electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded to candidates who come in first place
Proportional Representation – an electoral system in which seats in the legislative branch are awarded in proportion to the percentage of votes received

30. Nominations and Campaigns
To run for office, a person much first receive a party’s official nomination
Campaign strategy – the plan of candidates to win the election
Caucus – used by a few states to choose delegates; closed meetings of party regulars who participate in party building activities and select nominees
Primaries – voters can nominate a presidential candidate directly through a primary election
Open primaries – vote on any ballot
Closed primaries – vote only on the ballot for the party with which you are registered
Iowa and New Hampshire – receive disproportionate attention from the media because of their early primary/caucus, even though their populations are not very representative of the country as a whole

31. Polling
Sample – a relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole
Random sampling – the key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample
Sampling error – the level of confidence in the findings of a public opinion poll. The more people interviewed, the more confident one can be of the results
Random digit dialing – a technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey
Exit poll – public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision

32. Elections and Voting Behavior
Suffrage – the right to vote
Twenty-Sixth Amendment – set the minimum voting age at 18
Although more people are able to vote, fewer people are exercising this right
Political efficacy – the belief that your vote will make a difference
Who votes?
People with a college education (Hispanics and Africans are less likely to vote, but those with higher levels of education vote in greater percentages than educated Caucasians)
Older people, especially senior citizens
More women than men have voted in recent elections
Union members
People who are married
How Americans Vote:
People vote according to their party identification
People vote according to the candidates’ personalities and appearance
People vote for candidates who share their policy preferences
A person may vote respectively, by choosing a candidate who vows to continue policies helpful to him or her, or by choosing the opposition candidate who promises to change the policy

33. Campaign Finance
Federal Election Commission administers campaign finance laws
Matching funds – Provide partial public financing for presidential primaries (Candidates who raise $5,000 in at least 20 states can get individual contributions of up to $250 matched by the federal treasury). By accepting federal support, candidates agree to limit campaign expenditures
Soft money – money given to political parties, banned under McCain-Feingold (was not subject to limitations until this Act)
Hard money – donations given directly to a candidate
527 groups – independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution limits because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates (CANNOT use messages like “Vote for” or “Vote Against”)

34. Campaign Finance
Citizens United v. F.E.C. – (2010) The Supreme Court ruled that corporations, labor unions, and other organizations could now use funds from their treasuries to endorse or denounce a candidate at any time provided ads are not coordinated with any candidate (think attack ads). Court decided that any limitations on groups’ advertising or spending constitutes a denial of free speech Buckley v. Valeo – (1976) The Court upheld the $1000 limit on individual donations and the $5000 limit on PACs, claiming these were not violations of free speech. The Court also ruled that Congress cannot limit a candidate’s spending of his or her own money, nor can it place a maximum on the overall receipts or expenditures of a campaign

35. Interest Groups
Interest groups represent bodies of people with shared interests who lobby legislators on their behalf, and they serve as linkage institutions as well – they represent the interests of the public in the policy arena
Pluralist Theory – groups are equal in power because they have different resources at their disposal
Elite Theory – the interests of only a handful of elites, usually business people, are almost always favored over other interests
Hyperpluralist Theory (interest group liberalism): Sub governments or iron triangles – there are too many groups and it adds confusion to the system
What makes a group successful?
Smaller groups – it is easier to activate all members when you have smaller groups; you won’t have the free rider problem, where individuals can benefit from the work of the group without actually joining the group
Intensity of a group – single-issue groups form around a specific policy and tend to pursue it uncompromisingly
Financial resources – politicians are most likely to serve the needs of people or groups with money

36. Interest Groups continued
How Groups Try to Shape Policy
Lobbying – professional lobbyists attempt to persuade lawmakers to act on behalf of their group
Electioneering – interest groups endorse a candidate who supports their interests and work to get the candidate elected
Litigation – interest groups use lawsuits to change policies that have already gone through the legislative process
Amicus curiae briefs – filed by interest groups to state their side in a court case
Mobilizing public opinion – interest groups try to influence the public because they know that politicians' careers depend on public opinion
Types of Interest Groups
Economic interests such as business, labor, and farmers are often against regulations and tax increases and want tax advantages (AFL-CIO, NEA)
Environmental interests are the fastest-growing type of interest group, favoring wilderness protection, pollution control, and energy alternatives (Sierra Club)
Equality interests such as civil rights, women’s rights, and social welfare groups’ concerns center on fair treatment in jobs, housing, and education (ACLU)
Consumers’ interests and public interests address issues in which the whole public benefits from certain policy actions, such as product safety (Consumer Alert)

37. Congress 435 Representatives and 100 Senators = 535 Members
Incumbents are elected officials who already hold office and are running for reelection. Incumbents win reelection more than 90% of the time.
Advantages of Incumbency
Advertising – Name recognition is an important advantage for incumbents. The number of votes a candidate receives is fairly proportional to his or her air time on television and the frequency of his or her public appearances. Advertising requires a great deal of campaign funds, particularly for Senators, which explains in part why Congress is composed mostly of wealthy men
Credit claiming – Incumbents have the benefit of being able to present their congressional record to their constituents to demonstrate their hard work in service of the district or State.
Position taking – incumbents’ public image is strengthened because they have already taken a stand on issues relevant to their constituency
Party identification – Voters for the most part cast their ballots along party lines
Franking privilege – free mail for those already in office

38. Congressional Organization
Bicameral legislature – divided into two houses. Legislation must pass both houses of Congress to become law
House –
A state’s population determines how many representatives it has
A State is divided into Congressional districts, each with an equal population
Every ten years, district lines must be redrawn according to the population data provided by the census and seats are reapportioned (Gerrymandering – creating safe districts)
Members tend to vote along party lines
Power is usually hierarchical
Special responsibilities include introducing revenue bills and articles of impeachment
Senate
Power is more evenly distributed among senators
Senators act more independently of their parties
Special responsibilities include approving presidential nominations, ratifying treaties, and the trial of impeached officials
Senators can filibuster – this power of unlimited debate means that they can talk so long that they delay or even prevent voting on a piece of legislation
Cloture – senators can stop a filibuster by voting for cloture, which halts debate. This rarely happens because it requires 60 votes, and the majority party usually holds fewer than 60 seats, making cloture nearly impossible

39. Congressional Leadership
House
Speaker of the House (Paul Ryan) – chosen by the majority party. The Speaker presides over each session and is largely responsible for assigning representatives to committees or party positions
House Majority Leader (Kevin McCarthy) – assists the Speaker in assigning majority party members to committees and scheduling legislation
House Minority Leader (Nancy Pelosi) – leads the minority party in opposing the agenda of the majority, and in choosing minority party members for committees
Whips (Steve Scalise, R; Steny Hoyer, D) – responsible for counting votes for proposed legislation, working with members of their party to get enough votes to pass or defeat a piece of legislation
Senate
President of the Senate (Mike Pence) – this is a more formal than active role. The President of the Senate would case a tiebreaking vote should there be a need for one.
Senate Majority Leader (Mitch McConnell) – usually the most active or seasoned member of the majority party. The majority leader manages the schedule of debate and rallies party votes for party legislation or against proposals of the minority party
Senate Minority Leader (Charles Schumer) – rallies the support of the minority party around legislation and acts as its spokesperson
Whips (Richard Durbin, D; John Cornyn, R) – assist party leaders in generating support for party legislation

40. Congressional Committees
Types of Committees:
Standing - handles a specific policy area, such as agriculture or finance. Both the House and the Senate have standing committees, and each committee is often divided into subcommittees
Joint – responsible for legislation that overlaps policy areas, composed of both Representatives and Senators
Select – appointed to handle a specific issue, such as an investigation or impeachment trial
Conference – they iron out the differences between the House and Senate versions of a bill. They consist of members of both the House and the Senate
Committee Chairs – influence the agenda of the committee. The chair is always a member of the majority party, and usually is the most senior member of the majority member on the committee.
Caucus – a group of members of Congress who share a similar interest. Each party has a caucus, and there are hundreds of caucuses, some more active than others. The Congressional Black caucus and the Congressional Women’s caucus are two examples. These caucuses hold hearings and put pressure on committees to try to influence legislation.

41. Congressional Committees Continued
House Rules Committee – reviews all bills submitted by committees before they go to the House floor, assigns them a slot on the calendar, allocates time for debate, and even decides whether the bill may be amended or not.
House Ways and Means Committee – writes bills concerning tax and other public revenue, which are subject to approval of both houses
Senate Finance Committee – works in conjunction with the House Ways and Means Committee to write tax and revenue bills
Appropriations Committee in each house – decides how government money will be apportioned to federal agencies. This is the largest committee on each side, and divides into many subcommittees that attach to each of the standing committees
Members of Congress do not always vote with their party. Partisanship tends to be strongest on economic and welfare issues. On other issues, members of Congress may act more independently, especially to fulfill the needs of their constituents. On high profile issues, members of Congress tend to vote as the constituency would want them to.

42. The Presidency
25th Amendment – Vice President becomes President in the event the President resigns or is convicted in an impeachment trial
Impeachment
The House may vote for the impeachment of the president by a simple majority
The Senate conducts the impeachment trial and the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court presides over the trial. It takes a two-thirds vote in the Senate to remove the president from office.
Two Presidents have been impeached, although neither was removed from office. Andrew Johnson was tried but not convicted, and Bill Clinton was acquitted by the Senate
Presidential Powers (formal and informal)
Veto proposed bills
Report to Congress in the State of the Union address
Nominate cabinet level officials, Supreme Court justices, and all other federal judges
Grant pardons for certain offenses
Act as Commander in Chief of the armed forces
Make treaties
Serve as diplomatic representative of the United States
Oversee the departments and agencies that make up the Executive Branch
Executive Orders (domestic in nature)
Executive Agreements (foreign in nature)
“Bully Pulpit” – used to set the agenda
Power of persuasion

43. Roles of the President
Chief of State – serves as an inspiring example for the American people (awarding medals to winners of scholarships, greeting visitors to the White House)
Chief Executive – serves as the “boss” for millions of government workers in the Executive Branch (appointing someone to serve as head of an agency)
Chief Diplomat – decides what American diplomats and ambassadors shall say to foreign governments, and makes foreign policy (traveling to London to meet with British leaders)
Commander in Chief – in charge of the U.S. armed forces (inspecting a Navy yard, calling out troops to stop a riot)
Chief Legislator – can urge Congress to pass new laws or may veto bills that he/she does not favor (signing a bill, making a speech in Congress)
Chief of Party – helps members of his political party get elected or appointed to office
Chief Guardian of the Economy – concerned with unemployment, inflation, taxes, etc. (meets with economic advisors to discuss ways to reduce unemployment)

44. Congress, the President and the Budget
Sixteenth Amendment – authorized Congress to collect income taxes
Progressive income tax – people with higher incomes pay a greater percentage in taxes
Proportional income tax – flat tax; everyone pays an equal rate
Regressive tax – sales taxes; poorer people pay a higher percentage of their income for goods and services
Social insurance taxes – paid by both businesses and their employees. Social services are now the biggest expenditure – programs for people of low income and senior citizens make up 1/3 of the budget
Tax loopholes – any tax break that allows a person to benefit from not paying a part of his or her taxes (deductions for specific items, and not everyone has the same access to loopholes)
Tax expenditures – the losses in federal revenue that result from tax breaks, deductions, and exemptions. The government loses money by excusing a homeowner from paying taxes on a mortgage. Middle and upper income people benefit the most because they usually have more deductions and write-offs.
Uncontrollable expenditures – a form of mandatory spending. Pensions and payments toward the national debt are fixed and thus not subject to budgetary cuts or changes.
Entitlements – benefits the government must pay to people who are eligible according to federal rules, such as veterans’ aid, Social Security and welfare
Incrementalism – the basis on which the budget is adjusted every year. A budget is calculated by assuming that the expenditures included in the budget of the previous year will rise for the next year.

45. War Powers
War Powers Act (1973) – maintains the President’s need for urgent action or to defend the united States while preserving the war-declaring authority of Congress.
President can order the military into combat 48 hours before informing Congress
Congress can vote to approve or disapprove of any presidential military action at any time, with the stipulation that the vote must take place within 60 days
Troops must be withdrawn after 60 days unless Congress declares war or grants an extension
Result of aggressive actions to stop Communism (Vietnam)

46. Federal Bureaucracy Bureaucrats are hired in one of two ways:
Civil Service System – relies on entrance exams, and civil servants are promoted by merit rather than patronage
Presidential recruitment
Department of Defense has largest number of civil employees, followed by the Postal Service
Organization
15 Cabinet Departments oversee and administer various policy areas
Regulatory agencies oversee a particular aspect of the economy, creating regulations that protect people
Government Corporations perform services for a fee, like a private business (U.S. Postal Service is the largest; other examples include Amtrak and Tennessee Valley Authority)
Independent Executive Agencies include all other executive bodies. Most are created for specific purposes, such as NASA.
Policy implementation is not always successful for various reasons (program design is flawed, Congress may not be clear about their goals, or a department may lack resources to carry out implementation). Standard operating procedures sometimes cause agencies to fail to see what else needs to be done.
Iron triangles are made up of Congressional committees, the agencies they oversee, and affiliated interest groups

47. The Federal Courts
Criminal law is used when a person has violated a law
Civil law is used to settle disputes between private parties
Litigants are the parties involved in a case
Plaintiff brings the charges; Defendant is the party who has been charged
Interest groups become involved with court cases to influence decisions about the law
Courts of original jurisdiction are the first courts to hear a case
Courts of appellate jurisdiction hear cases that have been appealed; the court interprets the case as it relates to the law, it does not review the facts
The Supreme Court is the ultimate authority on the law (9 justices, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate, Justices serve lifetime terms)
Marbury v. Madison gave the Court the power of judicial review

48. Economic Policymaking
Mixed economy – capitalism but with government regulation
Unemployment occurs when were are not enough jobs
Inflation occurs when prices rise and is measured by the Consumer Price Index
Monetary policy is monitoring and controlling the amount of money in circulation
Fiscal policy is regulating revenues and expenditures through the federal budget; determined by Congress and the President
Keynesian Economic Theory (liberal) – encourages government’s active participation in the economy; government spending stimulates the economy by creating demand
Supply-side Economics (conservative) – be decreasing government involvement in the economy, people will be forced to work harder and save more; cutting taxes increases the money supply

49. Social Welfare Policymaking
The United States has one of the largest income gaps in the world because income distribution is extremely unequal among different economic classes
Income – money coming in from a paycheck; Wealth stocks and other assets
About 1% of the total American population possess more than one-third of all wealth in the U.S.
Entitlement programs – most government funds through these programs are given to people who are not poor
Means-tested programs – eligibility for these funds depends on how narrowly poverty is defined
Feminization of poverty – African Americans, Hispanics, people living in inner cities, and unmarried women tend to be the groups most afflicted with poverty. The increase in the incidents of women and their children living in poverty is referred to as the feminization of poverty.
Earned income tax credit – this program, provides very low-income workers with a cash credit, even if they have paid no federal income tax

50. Policymaking for Health Care and the Environment
The cost of health care in the U.S. is very high, and costs are increasing due to technological advances that are extremely expensive
Americans do not have equal access to health care
Medicare – health care for senior citizens
Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, Endangered Species Act of 1973, and the EPA’s Superfund (created in 1980 to clean up toxic waste sites) are just a few of the 20+ major pieces of federal environmental legislation
Environmental and economic policy often conflict with each other – Industrial processes can harm the environment, and environmental restrictions may inhibit economic growth and expansion
“Environmental Racism” refers to placing factories and power plants in poor, minority neighborhoods, which meets with less organized opposition

51. Foreign and Defense Policymaking
International organizations are becoming more necessary in today’s global political and economic arenas (i.e., United Nations)
Regional organizations combine blocs of countries in military and economic alliances (i.e., NATO, European Union)
Multinational corporations contribute to about 1/5 of the global economy and have significant influence over taxes and trade regulations
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as churches, labor unions, environmental groups and human rights groups unite people globally for common causes or goals
Bureaucratic arm of foreign policy is the State Department
The Central Intelligence Agency collects information in other countries to help our government make policy decisions
Economic sanctions have become a powerful tool of foreign policy. Embargoes, cutting off economic aid, and restricting imports are all forms of sanctions.
Oil and energy supplies are making economies more interdependent. The US imports most of its oil from the Middle East. The policies of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) are therefore of real importance to the US.

52. State Governments
Initiative – allows citizens to propose a piece of legislation, petition to have it placed on a ballot, and then vote on whether to make it law. Elected politicians are bypassed in the legislative process.
Referendum – a proposal by the state legislature that is then placed on the ballot to be approved by voters rather than by the governor. This is often used to amend State constitutions.
Recall – voters can use a recall to call for a special election to remove a politician from office. This is difficult and costly, and therefore, occurs infrequently.
State and local governments are sub national governments, and are the government with which citizens most often come into contact
Political parties are declining in influence in state elections. Voters are less likely to vote by party identification, and this leads to ticket splitting and divided government

53. Quizlet Reviews
Key Terms-
Final Review-
Congress-
SCOTUS Cases-
Checks and Balances-

54. Kahoot
Court Case and Acts of Congress-
Mega Review-