1. Equity in access and participation in higher education in India
Professor N.V.Varghese
Acting Vice Chancellor NUEPA and
Director, CPRHE/NUEPA,
New Delhi

2. Economic growth and inequalities
World is growing
World is growing unequal
Inequality has become one of the most commonly discussed theme in this century
Education is a crucial factor influencing economic and social inequalities
Equity in educational attainment is a necessary condition for more equal distribution of benefits of growth

3. Trends in the expansion of higher education
This century experienced massive expansion – enrolment more than doubled from 100 to m from 2000 to 2015
Nearly 90 % of the increase in enrolment is in developing countries
Enrolment in developed countries are stagnating or declining
The prospects of further growth lie in the developing countries

4. Massification of HE in India
India has the second largest higher education system after China.
India entered a stage of massification of HE in this century
India has nearly universities, nearly 40,000 colleges and 34 million students
The enrolment ratio (GER) is 24.5 per cent.
The rate of growth of higher education has been accelerating in this century.
The growth potential of the sector continues to be high

5. Enrolment in higher education (GER) 2014 -15
Countries
GER total
GER male
GER Female
USA
86.0
73.0
100.0 UK
56.0
49.0
64.0
France
58.0
71.0
Russian Federation
80.0
88.0
China
43.0
40.0
47.0
India
24.5
25.4
23.5
Pakistan
10.0
11.0
9.0

6. Share in enrolment by management type
2007 general
2014 General
2007 Technical
2014 Technical
Government
55.4
50.8
25.5
22.2
Private aided
29.6
25.6
30.6
24.2
Private unaided
13.5
23.2
42.4
52.6

7. HE development : from public to private institutions
HE remained mostly a monopoly of the state in the post-independence period
Focus on technological self-reliance ( establishment of IITs, IIMs, RECs ( NITs)
Focus on quality in HE – limited expansion
Private sector was encouraged – aided sector, self-financing courses, capitation fee colleges
Private universities in this century

8. HE development in India in the 2000s : revival of the sector
A stage of revival and massive expansion in this century
Massification of the sector with 2 digit growth rates
Major share of enrolment in private institutions
This was also a period of expansion with persistent inequalities

9. Who benefits from Expansion
When expansion is accompanied by increase in inequality indices - the rich benefits
When expansion is accompanied by no change/ increase in inequality indices – rich and poor benefit
When expansion is accompanied by a reduction in inequality indices – the poor benefits more than the rich

10. Inequalities in HE development in India
Regional disparities have increased
Social disparities declined but continue to persist
Gender disparities are declining – GPI is close to unity or more than one in some of the advanced states
Student diversity remains a challenge to be addressed systematically
Social composition of student intake changed but institutions remain less sensitive to these changes – how to deal with student diversity

11. Regional Disparities : variations in GER in 2015-16
States
GER total
GER SC
GER ST
Bihar
14.3
9.3
12.3
Jharkhand
15.5
11.9
10.5
West Bengal
17.7
12.8
9.5
Chandigarh
57.3
32.7 -
Delhi
45.0
29.5
Tamil Nadu
44.3
34.4
31.8
Andhra Pradesh
30.8
25.5
23.4
All India
24.5
19.9
14.2

12. Regional Disparities : colleges per 100 thousand population 2015-16
States
Colleges
Private institutions
Telengana 60
83.3
Puducherry 55
62.3
Karnataka 50
67.7
Andhra Pradesh 45
80.4
Bihar 7
12.7
Jharkhand 9
37.7
West Bengal 10
38.1
Tripura 12
12.0
All India 28
63.8

13. Economic disparities in access : GER by income levels 2014 ( %)
Income Quintile
GER
Poorest 20%
Income group
5.2
20 to 40% income group
8.1
40 to 60 % income group
15.6
60 to 80 % income group
24.9
Richest 20%
61.7

14. Economic Disparities : enrolment by income levels 2014 (%)
General ST SC
OBCs
I Quintile
7.7
11.6
7.8
4.1
II Quintile
16.4
15.3
13.7
8.3
III Quintile
29.0
24.7
21.9
18.8
IV Quintile
23.7
21.8
26.4
20.0
V Quintile
23.2
26.6
30.1
48.0
Technical
7.5
6.1
1.6
0.7
10.8
5.7
2.2
10.9
16.1
11.2
4.8
16.7
17.2
16.6
12.6
54.0
53.1
64.8
79.7

15. Social disparities : Enrolment by social groups
GER %
Christians
44.9
Hindus
32.9
OBC
14.8 SC
11.6
Muslim
9.6 ST
7.7
All
17.2

16. Social Disparities : Medium of instruction by type of institutions 2014 (%)
Hindi
English
Regional
Total
Government
42.5
34.0
23.6
100.0
Private aided
25.4
53.5
21.2
Private unaided
16.3
72.7
11.0
31.7
48.1
20.2

17. Social Disparities : medium of Instruction by social groups
Hindi
English
Regional
Total ST
42.3
31.6
25.5
100.0 SC
37.1
31.9
31.0
OBC
35.6
46.1
18.3
Others
27.1
55.1
17.9

18. Social Disparities :Medium of instruction by social groups and income levels (%)
I Quintile
Hindi
English
Regional
Total ST
44.4
31.3
24.3
100.0 SC
72.3
17.7
10.0
OBC
70.5
17.2
12.3
Others
60.6
31.1
8.3
67.0
21.3
11.8
V Quintile
21.2
18.2
28.4
55.4
16.2
16.5
74.8
8.7
18.7
20.8
25.4
60.1
14.5

19. Social disparities : conclusions
Social disparities persist in HE
Social disparities are higher in elite institutions, technical and professional courses and in PG courses
First generation learners are more affected
Medium of instruction influences selection of institutions of study
The cumulative effect of disadvantage is a major stumbling block for the disadvantaged
Private institutions add to social disparities

20. Gender Disparities Gender disparities are declining
Women constitute nearly 45 % of enrolment in HE
GPI is > 1 in some of the states with higher GER
Women are less represented in technical subjects
Private institutions does not necessarily add to widen gender disparities
Safety in the campuses and outside

21. Equity in academic achievement
Point of entry is relaxed due to reservation policies
Academic integration remains a challenge
Pre-college academic experience varies and they influence academic performance
Medium of instruction at the school level is a major constraint to achieve academic integration
First generation learners graduating from government schools find it more difficult
Lecture method as the dominant mode of instruction negatively affects the disadvantaged

22. Equity in academic achievement
Back paper syndrome is very common among the disadvantaged
The disadvantaged repeat classes
Drop out rates are higher among the disadvantaged groups
Undesirable social outcomes and stress leading to and suicides are not uncommon
Low employment outcomes

23. Strategies to promote equity in the campuses
Academic support programmes in the first year in college
Strengthen the existing remedial programmes
Language and writing support to students
Classes on general competencies
Making special cells more effective
Promoting mixed social groups
Developing diversity action plans

24. Future challenges
Less inequalities among elites and high among less elites
Dispersed provision of higher education facilities
More public institutions in the STEM areas
Strict implementation of reservation policies
Managing massification, markets and equity
Managing diversity - majority of students from disadvantaged groups and teachers and administrators from advantaged groups

25. Future challenges
Diversity in language proficiency and learning deficits
Institutional tolerance of diversity and plurality needs to be monitored
Widening educational distances among those enrolled
Quality of higher education
Employment and employability of the educated