1. Beethoven’s 7th Symphony
Beethoven’s 7th Symphony
“The sign of revolt is given; there is a rushing and running about of the multitude; an innocent man, or party, is surrounded, overpowered after a struggle and haled before a legal tribunal. Innocency weeps; the judge pronounces a harsh sentence; sympathetic voices mingle in laments and denunciations. … The magistrates are now scarcely able to quiet the wild tumult. The uprising is suppressed, but the people are not quieted; hope smiles cheeringly and suddenly the voice of the people pronounces the decision in harmonious agreement.”
– interpretation by Dr. Karl Iken, editor of the Bremer Zeitung and a contemporary of Beethoven

2. Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People, 1830. (depicts 28 July 1830).

3. Mathilde Adorno, November 2015, courtesy of The Guardian - http://www

4. Modern Revolutions in Comparative Perspective
Hannah Elias

5. Week 9: Nineteenth-Century Revolutions
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions of 1848
Essay Writing Guide

7. Preamble
‘When France sneezes, Europe catches cold.’ – Austrian Chancellor Metternich
France is source of revolutionary disturbances in 1830, 1848, 1851 and 1870.
Why France? Legacy of 1789? Emotion?
Duke of Wellington: ‘Beginning reform is beginning revolution.’

8. (1) Revolutions of 1830
‘Forgotten Revolutions of 1830’ because overshadowed by 1789 and 1848.
However, worth remembering: following economic crises, in 1830 there were revolutions in: France, Belgium, Poland, Italy, Greece, Britain*

9. (1) Revolutions of 1830
France: uprising in July Bourbon Restoration ends with overthrow of Charles X
Constitutional ‘July Monarchy’ voted into power
Crown offered to cousin of former king, ex-Jacobin republican, ‘Citizen-King’ Louis-Philippe, former Duc d'Orléans – King of the French, not King of France.
Liberal revolution – agitating for more consent in government; supported by Lafayette, who leads rebels – admiration for American system
Settlement is a bourgeois compromise  a ‘popular throne surrounded by republican institutions’ – compromise between R and L. No socio-economic change.

10. (1) Revolutions of 1830
Belgium: independence from Netherlands. Resented subordination since (Leopold I crowned)
Poland: quest for national independence has long pedigree, greatest determination but least success. Suppressed by Russians
Raised an armed uprising every generation for independence: 1733, 1768, 1794, 1830, 1848, 1863, 1095, 1919, 1944.
Nationalism: to do with culture, identity and honour, not economic rationale.
1830 – wild conspiracy provoked by rumours of Tsar’s plan to dispatch Polish army vs Belgium. Tsar rejects dialogue, chance at victory by outflanked
10, 000 exiles, tens of thousands marched to Siberia in chains. All insurgents deprived of freedom and property.

11. (1) Revolutions of 1830
Italy: quest for independence of Northern Italy from Austria, suppressed by Austrians
Greece: nationalist independence movement esp. since 1820s, Greek monarchy independent from Ottoman Empire created in 1830
Britain, German lands, Switzerland: popular (worker et al.) disturbances, Great Reform Act in Britain (1832)
1832 Act: standardises electors in constituency, expansion of electorate: 1/5 of men can now vote

12. (1) Revolutions of 1830
What was distinctive about the revolutions of 1830?
Spirit of revolution spreads quickly - unprecedented degree of European interconnectedness because of industrialisation and diplomatic alliance system set up after Napoleon’s fall during Congress of Vienna ( )
Vulnerability of alliance system – successive congresses tried to contain the forces of change, Congress system ends when George Canning & President Monroe ‘forbid’ intervention in Spain’s South American colonies.
Canning, 1826: ‘Things are getting back to a wholesome state… every nation for itself and God for us all.’

13. (1) Revolutions of 1830
What was distinctive about the revolutions of 1830?
first nationalist revolutions (important: nationalism was not yet ‘conservative’ but often ‘progressive’ because it sought to overcome territorial boundaries drawn according to old, monarchic European order)
Nationalism: collection of ideas regarding nation, whose interests are taken to be the supreme good
Benedict Anderson: imagined community, ‘print-capitalism’
Increasing politicisation of public  participation through protest, parliament etc. widens

14.
Les Misérables, Do You Hear Fictionalised account of the events of 1832, based on the writings of Victor Hugo.

15. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Unprecedented year:
revolutions in nearly every European country
revolutions with ‘French subconscious’: emulate French revolutionary tradition
Formal end of ‘concert of Europe’, i.e Vienna Congress alliance system
1848: ‘turning point at which modern history failed to turn’ – Trevelyan  perception: failed revolutions

16. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Causes:
long-term: politicisation of increasing numbers of people  e.g. suffrage campaigns
long-term: socioeconomic  industrialisation
long-term: demands for national autonomy, esp. in Austro-Hungarian Empire
short-term: serious European food crisis in 1846  famine (+ epidemics): 1 million dead

17. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Course – France:
Overthrow of Louis-Philippe = a signal that sets almost all major cities in Germany, Austria, Italy and Hungary ablaze.
1848: ‘Revolution of the intellectuals’; Communist Manifesto; in practice bloody actions speak louder than words
Revolution unexpected – unpopular and unrepresentative regime, but timing unforeseen
Triggered by banning of banquet for left-wing National Guard members; verbal protest, not enough votes to impeach - February
Le National urged citizens to turn up and demonstrate opposition to gov’t. Workers and students took to streets: mix of utopian socialism, Jacobinism, nationalism
‘When a regime lost Paris, it lost France’ – no opposition in rest of country. Louis-Philippe resigns, provisional gov’t

18. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Course – France:
Provisional gov’t declares universal male suffrage, establishes National Workshops to combat unemployment
Part funded by land tax on land owners and peasants outside Paris
They elect a conservative government – dispute ‘right to work’; Workshops dispanded; riots
June Days – General Cavaignac crushes resistance of workers protesting low pay – 10,000 dead
Military dictatorship until presidential elections in Dec.  Prince Louis Napoleon (nephew of Bonaparte) elected, stages coup to become dictator from 1851, crowned Emperor Napoleon III in 1852 (Second French Empire)
Another example of democratic means and republican institutions used to secure dictatorship

19. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Course – German lands:
39 independent states in German lands – ‘Pan-Germanism’ begins early 19th c.
Liberal middle class and working class seeking improved conditions aligned – defeated when divided by aristocracy
Many German principalities gave in to liberal demands in wake of Feb. Revolution in France – free press, free assembly, written constitutions, parliament; absolute monarchy overthrown in Prussia in March
liberals meet in Frankfurt Assembly and debate unification of German lands (small-German option without Austrians chosen in March 1849)
Prussian king chosen as constitutional monarch  rejects ‘crown from the gutter’  revolution failed, recrimination and repression

20. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Course – Italy:
Independent republics declared in Venice and Rome in 1848, Sicily and Naples turn against Bourbon monarch Ferdinand II
Series of wars and revolts culminate in 1870, il Risorgimento – the resurgence – creation of unified Italy, one nation with one common language
Austria:
in 1848 most threatened by nationalism because of multinational make-up  revolutions in Austria (Vienna), Hungary (Budapest) and the Czech lands (Prague)  all eventually defeated

21. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Outcomes: Mixed
dictatorship and Second Empire in France under Napoleon III
Constitution in Prussia (albeit conservative one with three classes of voters)
Peasantry emancipated from feudal dues, end of bond-labour services – many become ardent supporters of regime that unbinds them from land (i.e. Austria)
Europe ‘catches up’ to France in 1815

22. (2) Revolutions of 1848 Outcomes:
Main reason for negative outcome in those countries where revolution failed:
split between bourgeois liberals (by and large in favour of constitutional monarchy) and more radical democrats
1850s/60s – dominated by renewal of warfare between European powers, owing much to expansive ambitions of Napoleon III – ‘Age of Revolutionary Wars’
19th c - ‘conservative’ definition – meaning protection of established institutions of state and society (monarchy, Church, social hierarchy, property, the family), not opposed to democratic institutions or change as such

23. A DAY WILL COME when your arms will fall even from your hands
A DAY WILL COME when your arms will fall even from your hands! A day will come when war will seem as absurd and impossible between Paris and London, between Petersburg and Berlin, between Vienna and Turin, as it would be impossible and would seem absurd today between Rouen and Amiens, between Boston and Philadelphia. A day will come when you France, you Russia, you Italy, you England, you Germany, you all, nations of the continent, without losing your distinct qualities and your glorious individuality, will be merged closely within a superior unit and you will form the European brotherhood, just as Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Lorraine, Alsace, all our provinces are merged together in France. A day will come when the only fields of battle will be markets opening up to trade and minds opening up to ideas. A day will come when the bullets and the bombs will be replaced by votes, by the universal suffrage of the peoples, by the venerable arbitration of a great sovereign senate which will be to Europe what this parliament is to England, what this diet is to Germany, what this legislative assembly is to France. A day will come when we will display cannon in museums just as we display instruments of torture today, and are amazed that such things could ever have been possible. (…) 
Victor Hugo, Opening Address to the Peace Congress (Paris, August 21, 1849) 

24. (3) Essay Writing Guide Finding a topic:
Is it suitably narrow, or does it allow enough depth?
Is the topic feasible? – think resources
Does the topic have enough probative value? Can I write an argument?
Can I use the subject to demonstrate my ability to research, interpret, organise and convey important ideas?

25. (3) Essay Writing Guide 2. Formulating a research question.
Form 1-2 questions that will help guide your research
Having a question in mind will help you avoid the tendency to merely narrate facts and events with no specific purpose in mind
Example:
To what extent was WW1 caused by international power struggles?
Did these power struggles exist for a long period, were they short term, or were they immediate?

26. (3) Essay Writing Guide Finding Sources – 10 needed for outline
Primary – newspapers, printed material, diaries, letters, census data & stats, fictional and non-fictional literature, government records, artifacts, films, media
Secondary – Journal articles, Monographs, Edited Collections, Book reviews

27. (3) Essay Writing Guide Evaluating Sources:
Poor sources: popular history, textbooks, dictionaries, works unsupported by historical evidence, personal web sites, ‘unscholarly’ work, WIKIPEDIA
Better sources: works whose argument is still relevant, books/journals published by university or academic presses, works with extensive footnotes/bibliographies, websites supported by reliable institutions (.ac.uk, .edu, .gov, .gov.uk)

28. (3) Essay Writing Guide Search advice: Historical Abstracts
Hunting through bibliographies
British Library, Senate House Library
Smart notes: don’t read every word – parse structure; do take reliable notes – jot down direct quotations, write down your own thoughts when finishing with a source

29. (3) Essay Writing Guide Preparing Outline and Bibliography
Divided into subsections: introduction, then the subsections of your argument. Explanation of section beneath the title of each subsection
For introductory section: compose a THESIS STATEMENT or argument.
Usually consists of one, complex statement
Sets tone for essay, all evidence must relate to the thesis statement
Can provide a suggestion of structure/direction of argument

30. (3) Essay Writing Guide Thesis Statements
Good thesis: one whose argument is aggressive, sustainably, and stands in need of proof to be correct.
Bad thesis: obvious argument, relies on broad generalisations or personal opinion.
Examples:
Weak: World War I was a conflict between European powers.
Slightly better: World War I was the result of various international power struggles in Europe.
Best: World War I resulted from the coming together of various long-term and short-term international power struggles, best characterised by a series of preconditions, precipitants and triggers.

31. (3) Essay Writing Guide Preparing an outline:
A helpful and necessary step to guide you through the writing process.
Can be helpful to ‘mind map’ or brainstorm for 5 minutes by writing down everything you can think of on your topic, then pull together various sub-themes
Good writers go through several outlines before arriving at one that will arrive at a top-quality, well-reasoned essay

32. (3) Essay Writing Guide
Introduction: state topic and thesis statement, give structure of paper
Preconditions (“Long term” causes)
a. Anglo and Franco-German Rivalry (arms race)
b. Triple Entente and Triple Alliance c. African imperialism
Precipitants (“Short term” causes) a. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand
b. “48 hour ultimatum”
c. The Forming of Alliances
Triggers (“Immediate” causes)
a. Schlieffen Plan b. Invasion of Belgium c. British ultimatum
Conclusion: restate thesis statement; why is this paper important?

33. (3) Essay Writing Guide
The same principles of essay writing apply to a 1000 word or 6000 word assignment
Rule of thumb: it’s wise to plan for around 1 hour of preparation, 1 hour of writing and 1 hour of re-writing/proofreading for every 250 words in your essay.
Meaning: 72 hours for 6000 words (approx 9 full 8-hour working days); 96 hours for 8000 words (approx 12 full 8-hour working days)
If you decide to change topic after submitting outline – this is possible.