1. The History & Scope of Psychology

2. Psychology Brainstorm
What does it mean?
What do psychologists study?
Is psychology a true science?
How is psychology related to other sciences?

3. Psychology: A Definition
The science of behavior and mental processes.
Science: based on research
Behavior: observable, measurable
Mental processes: thinking, dreaming…

4. Psychology’s Big Issues
Stability v. Change
Continuity v. Discontinuity
Nature v. Nurture

5. Stability v. Change
As the years pass, do we change or remain the same?
Do we become adults or are we always just big kids?
Personality traits, physical appearance, sense of humor, tastes, etc…

6. Continuity v. Discontinuity
Does growth occur gradually or in stages?

7. Nature v. Nurture Biology versus Experience
Am I the way I am because I was born that way or because of my surroundings?

8. Goals of Psychology
Observe
Predict
Explain
Describe
Control

9. History of Psychology

10. Did prehistoric man use psychology?
Curious about world around him as well as his own behavior
Blamed people’s abnormal behavior on evil spirits
Performed trepanations to release evil spirits

11. Prescientific Psychology
Psychology’s Roots
Prescientific Psychology
Ancient Egyptians believed that within each person was a smaller person, “ka”, that controlled behavior
As many as seven Kas could be found (seven is a sacred number)
Stored in the heart, continued to live after death (mummification)

12. Prescientific Psychology
Psychology’s Roots
Prescientific Psychology
OBJECTIVE 2| Trace psychology’s prescientific roots from, from early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science. Through out human history thinkers have wondered: How do our minds work? How do our bodies relate to our minds? How much of what we know comes built in? How much is acquired through experience?
In India, Buddha wondered how sensations and perceptions combined to form ideas.

13. Pre-scientific Psychology
Confucius ( B.C.)
home.tiscali.be/alain.ernotte/livre/confucius.jpg
In China, Confucius stressed the power of ideas and the importance of an educated mind.

14. Pre-scientific Psychology
Hebrew Scriptures
Hebrew scriptures linked mind and emotion to the body.

15. Pre-scientific Psychology
Socrates ( B.C.) and Plato ( B.C.)
Socrates
Plato
Socrates and his student Plato believed the mind was separate from the body, the mind continued to exist after death, and ideas were innate.

16. Pre-scientific Psychology
Aristotle ( B.C.)
“The soul is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the soul.” Aristotle, De Anima, 350 B.C.
Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.

17. Pre-scientific Psychology
Hippocrates
BCE
“Father of Medicine”
Stressed illnesses and abnormal behavior were caused by natural causes, not supernatural
“Humors” became imbalanced
Blood
Phlegm
Black bile
Yellow bile

18. Pre-scientific Psychology
Rene Descartes ( )
I think, therefore I am.
Descartes like Plato believed the immaterial mind and physical body were separate but communicated in the brain at pineal gland. Animal spirits moved from the brain to act on the muscles and experiences lead the nerves to open up “pores” in the brain to form memories. Descartes was right about the nerves connecting the inside and the outside worlds but had no notion of how these nerves functioned.
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind)-body separation, but wondered how the immaterial mind and physical body communicated.

19. Pre-scientific Psychology
Francis Bacon ( )
Bacon is one of the founders of modern science, particularly the experimental method.

20. Pre-scientific Psychology
John Locke ( )
biografieonline.it/img/bio/John_Locke.jpg
Locke held that the mind was a tabula rasa, or blank slate, at birth, and experiences wrote on it.

21. Pre-scientific Psychology
What is the relation of mind to the body?
Mind and body are connected
Mind and body are distinct
The Hebrews
Socrates
Aristotle
Plato
Augustine
Descartes

22. Pre-scientific Psychology
How are ideas formed?
Some ideas are inborn
The mind is a blank slate
Socrates
Aristotle
Plato
Locke

23. Prologue:History and Approaches
Empiricism
Structuralism
Functionalism
Unit I History and Approaches

24. Empiricism
Stated that knowledge is the result of experience and observation
Challenged the view that knowledge is innate or inborn
Challenged the view that reason is the source of knowledge or justification (Rationalism)
Basis for observation and experimentation
Important to the development of scientific psychology
Key Figures
John Locke
George Berkeley
David Hume
Francis Bacon
Unit I History and Approaches

25. Psychological Science is Born
Structuralism
Titchner ( )
Wundt ( )
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how early psychologists sought to understand the mind’s structure and functions, and identify some of the leading psychologists who worked in these areas. Structuralism: Wundt and his student Titchner focused on the elements of mind, and studied it by using introspection (self-reflection). Wundt established the first laboratory of psychology in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany, and wrote the first textbook of psychology.
Wundt and Titchener studied the elements (atoms) of the mind by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.
Lab

26. Structuralism Influenced by work of Wilhelm Wundt Edward Titchener
Strengths
The first major school of thought in psychology
Strong influence on experimental psychology
Weaknesses
Concentration on consciousness
Experimental methods were too subjective
Concentration on internal behavior (introspection)
Unit I History and Approaches

27. Structuralism Wundt Titchener
The start of modern psychology -1879, Wundt established the first formal psychology research laboratory - University of Leipzig, Germany
Method of introspection to observe conscious experience
Titchener
Englishman who studied with Wundt
Introduced concept of “structuralism”
Created laboratory at Cornell University
Unit I History and Approaches

28. Psychological Science is Born
Functionalism
James ( )
Mary Calkins
Functionalism: James suggested that it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings than simply studying the elements of mind. Based on the theory of evolution, he suggested that the function of these thoughts and feelings was adaptive. James admitted the first woman student Mary Calkins to Harvard and tutored her. Despite his efforts she was not able to attain her PhD from Harvard.
Influenced by Darwin, William James established the school of functionalism, which opposed structuralism.

29. Functionalism Major influence on Strong influence on Behaviorism
Applied Psychology
Strong influence on
The educational system
The philosophy of John Dewey
The belief that children should learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared
Influenced by work of
William James
Charles Darwin
Sought to explain mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner
Focused on the purposes of consciousness and behavior
Unit I History and Approaches

30. Early Contributors G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
Mary Whiton Calkins ( )
Margaret Floy Washburn ( )
Gilbert Haven Jones ( )
Leta Stetter Hollingworth ( )
Francis Cecil Sumner ( )
Mary Cover Jones ( )
(1882) First American Ph.D., in psych, Establishes 1st psych lab-Johns Hopkins, founds APA
(1891) Established psych lab at Wellesley, 1st women APA pres.
(1894)1st women Ph.D., writes early texts
(1916) 1st works on the psych of women
(1920) 1st African-American Ph.D. (From an American University)
Unit I History and Approaches

31. G. Stanley Hall
Earned his doctorate in psychology with William James in 1878
Traveled to Leipzig to study with Wundt
Developed what is considered the first American psychology laboratory (at Johns Hopkins University
First President of the APA
Instrumental in the founding of the APA
Unit I History and Approaches

32. Mary Whiton Calkins
Harvard refused to grant her a doctoral degree unless she received it through Radcliffe
opened one of the first psychological laboratories in the United States at Wellesley College in 1891.
Became the first woman president of the American Psychological Association (1905)
Unit I History and Approaches

33. Margaret Floy Washburn
Allowed to audit classes at Columbia and work in James Cattell’s laboratory
First woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology (Cornell 1894)
Studied with Titchener
Her book The Animal Mind (1908) suggested that mental processes of animals are a legitimate area of study
President of APA (1921)
Unit I History and Approaches

34. Gilbert Haven Jones
One of the first African Americans to earn a doctorate in psychology.
First African American to Receive his Ph.D. from a German university (1909)
Jones was also the first African American with a Ph.D. to teach psychology in the United States.
Unit I History and Approaches

35. Leta Stetter Hollingworth
Best known for work with exceptional children
Wrote the first comprehensive text on the gifted
Taught the first college course on the gifted
Commenced one of the first systematic studies of children with intelligence quotients (IQ) above 180
Unit I History and Approaches

36. Mary Cover Jones Known as "the mother of behavior therapy“
Early work on the unconditioning of the fear reaction in infants
Famous study of a three-year-old named Peter
tested a number of procedures to remove his fear of a white rabbit
Made a rich contribution to the understanding of development across the lifespan

37. Francis Cecil Sumner
First black man to receive a Ph.D. in psychology in America
Established an independent psychology program at Howard University
One of his students was Kenneth Clark whose studies were important in the Brown v. Board of Education legal case
Unit I History and Approaches

38. Unit 1.4 History and Approaches
Early Foundations of Psychological Research
Unit I History and Approaches

39. Early Foundations of Psychological Research
Gestalt Psychology
Unconscious Influences (Freud)
Behaviorism
Cognitive Psychology
Unit I History and Approaches

40. Later Shifts in Psychological Research
Social Situations / Group Dynamics
Kurt Lewin
Humanism
Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers
Cognitive Psychology
George Miller, Ulrich Neisser
Neurological factors
-Roger Sperry, Michael Gazzaniga
Unit I History and Approaches

41. Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer Wolfgang Köhler Kurt Koffka
Unit I History and Approaches
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer
Wolfgang Köhler
Kurt Koffka
Reaction to the reductionism of Wundt
the word Gestalt means a unified or meaningful whole
based on the observation that we often experience things that are not a part of our simple sensations

42. Gestalt Psychology
Led by Max Wertheimer, these guys focused not on how we feel, but on how we experience the world.
The whole of an experience can be more than the sum of its parts.
Think for a moment of all the reasons that you love a close loved one.
If you add all those reasons up, do they equal your love for that loved one?
Hopefully not!!!
This may seem like one picture, but it can be perceived as 3 different faces. Can you find them?

43. phi phenomenon Examples:
Unit I History and Approaches
phi phenomenon
Examples:
Christmas lights that blink off and on
Neon signs in Las Vegas
Basic principle of motion pictures – individual still pictures in rapid succession
Wertheimer noted that we perceive motion where there is nothing more than a rapid sequence of individual sensory events.
Experimented with lights flashing in rapid succession

44. Psychological Science is Born
The Unconscious Mind
Freud ( )
Sigmund Freud and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.

45. Unconscious Influences
Unit I History and Approaches
Unconscious Influences
Sigmund Freud
Conscious, subconscious, and unconscious
Theory that much of our minds thinking and memory are not accessible to our awareness
And that these unconscious urges, desires, and memories have a direct impact on our emotions and behavior
Freud placed a great deal of emphasis on the sexual nature of the unconscious

46. Unit I History and Approaches
Group photo in front of Clark University Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; Back row: Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi. Photo taken for Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts publication.

47. Freud’s Theory of the Unconscious Mind
Depends on the idea that humans can remember events but not be consciously aware of the memory
The Conscious Mind: Current Awareness (Iceberg above water)
The Preconscious Mind: Ordinary Memory (Iceberg visible below water)
The Unconscious Mind: Memories that We Don’t Remember (Iceberg submerged out-of-sight)

48. Unit I History and Approaches

49. Behaviorism Reaction to Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious
Unit I History and Approaches
Behaviorism
Reaction to Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious
Reaction to much of psychology which was not considered objective or scientific
Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Clark Hull, B.F. Skinner
Theory that all behaviors are learned, or acquired through conditioning
Behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states

50. Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorism
Skinner ( )
Watson ( )
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe the evolution of psychology as defined from 1920s to through today. Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist, James Watson and Skinner were all instrumental in developing the science of psychology and emphasized behavior instead of mind or mental thoughts. From 1920 to 1960, psychology in the US was heavily oriented towards behaviorism.
Watson (1913) and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology.

51. Psychological Science Develops
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow ( )
Rogers ( )
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our need for love and acceptance.

52. Cognitive Psychology George A Miller
Unit I History and Approaches
Cognitive Psychology
Investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving, memory, and language
Foundations in Gestalt psychology and Jean Piaget
Ulric Neisser coined the term in 1967
In part a reaction to behaviorism
George A Miller
"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information“ (1956)

53. Social Situations / Group Dynamics
Unit I History and Approaches
Social Situations / Group Dynamics
Field Theory
Looking at the factors (forces) that influence a situation, originally social situations
Leadership and management
Authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire work environments
Kurt Lewin was one of the modern pioneers in
Social psychology
Organizational psychology
Applied psychology
Often seen as the founder of social psychology

54. Psychology Today
We define psychology today as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings).
An eclectic approach is generally used when approaching the study of psychology

55. Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the three main levels of analysis in the biopsychosocial approach, and explain why psychology’s varied perspectives are complementary. Biopsychosocial approach considers the influence of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors on behavior. Each approach provides an incomplete explanation of behaviors.

56. Psychology’s Perspectives
The Big Seven

57. Brainstorm
"Bob was driving his car in traffic one day when another driver cut him off. Bob proceeded to flip the man off and yell obscenities at the driver."
Now "Why did Bob flip off the other driver? What explains WHY he might have engaged in this action?"
With a partner think of as many reasons why (not necessarily precipitating events like, he lost his job, his girlfriend left, he had a bad day...)

58. Psychology’s Big Debate
Nature versus Nurture
Darwin ( )
OBJECTIVE 5| Summarize the nature-nurture debate in psychology, and describe the principle of natural selection.
Darwin stated that nature selects those that best enable the organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

59. Evolution Dirk brings his family tree to class
Unit I History and Approaches

60. Evolution - Charles Darwin
Darwin attempted to explain the huge variety of living things:
In a scientific way
Without drawing on religious ideas
Evolution is not about progress
It is about adaptation
Unit I History and Approaches

61. Evolution - Charles Darwin
Natural Selection
Promotes the survival of the fittest individuals
Favorable heritable traits become more common in success generations
Unfavorable traits become less common
Unit I History and Approaches

62. Evolution - Charles Darwin
Individuals do not evolve, species evolve.
This happens through natural selection.
Individuals best suited/adapted to a particular environment will survive and pass on their genes by reproducing more.
The rest may die or reproduce less.
Future generations will be better adapted to the environment (i.e. the species has evolved.
Unit I History and Approaches

63. Evolutionary Perspective
Focuses on Darwinism.
We behave the way we do because we inherited those behaviors.
Thus, those behaviors must have helped ensure our ancestors survival.
How could this behavior ensured Homer’s ancestors survival?

64. Neuroscience Perspective
Focus on how the physical body and brain creates our emotions, memories and sensory experiences.
If you could not remember the names of your parents and went to a psychologist who adheres to the neuroscience perspective, what might they say?

65. Biopsychology (Neuroscience) Perspective
All of your feelings and behaviors have an organic root.
In other words, they come from your brain, body chemistry, neurotransmitters, etc…
Let us imagine for a second that your dog died (sad but it will happen). You become depressed. You stop eating and sleeping. What would a psychologist from this school say is going on and how might they help you?

66. Psychodynamic Perspective
Fathered by Sigmund Freud.
Our behavior comes from unconscious drives.
Usually stemming from our childhood.
What might a psychoanalyst say is the reason someone always needs to be chewing gum?

67. Behavioral Perspective
Focuses on our OBSERVABLE behaviors.
Only cares about the behaviors that impair our living, and attempts to change them.
If you bit your fingernails when you were nervous, a behaviorist would not focus on calming you down, but rather focus on how to stop you from biting your nails.

68. Cognitive Perspective
Focuses on how we think (or encode information)
How do we see the world?
How did we learn to act to sad or happy events?
Cognitive Therapist attempt to change the way you think.
Meet girl
Get Rejected by girl
Or get back on the horse
Did you learn to be depressed

69. Social-Cultural Perspective
Focus on how your culture affects your behavior.
Even in the same high school, behaviors can change in accordance to the various subcultures.

70. Humanistic Perspective
Focuses on positive growth
Attempt to seek self-actualization
Therapists use active listening and unconditional positive regard.
Mr. Rogers would have made a great Humanistic Therapist!!!

71. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Neuroscience
How the body and brain enables emotions?
How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Evolutionary
How the natural selection of traits the promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes?
How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
Behavior genetics
How much our genes and our environments influence our individual differences?
To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributable to our genes? To our environment?
Although debates arise among the psychologists working from differing perspectives, each point of view addresses important questions.

72. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts?
How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Behavioral
How we learn observable responses?
How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?

73. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Cognitive
How we encode, process, store and retrieve information?
How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving?
Social-cultural
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures?
How are we — as Africans, Asians, Australians or North Americans – alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?

74. Remember Bob?
Look at the list of reason you came up with…now brainstorm with a buddy and try to fit them in to one of the 7 perspectives
Have perspectives unrepresented? Try to come up with an example to fit it.

75. Psychology’s Subfields

76. Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Psychologist
What she does
Biological
Explore the links between brain and mind.
Developmental
Study changing abilities from womb to tomb.
Cognitive
Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems.
Personality
Investigate our persistent traits.
Social
Explore how we view and affect one another.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify some of the psychology’s subfields, and explain the difference between clinical psychology and psychiatry.

77. Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Data: APA 1997

78. Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Psychologist
What she does
Clinical
Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Counseling
Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.
Educational
Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings
Industrial/
Organizational
Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.

79. Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Data: APA 1997

80. Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry
A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy.
Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.