1. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and its Consequences

2. Background Aftermath of World War I
British Empire had world's largest, most powerful navy
Followed closely by the United States
More distantly by Japan
Powers beginning new capital-ship (battleships and battle-cruisers) construction programs
1920, U.S. aiming for navy “second to none”
Had already laid down keels for five battleships, four battle-cruisers
Japan starting “8:8” program
Eight battleships, eight battle-cruisers

3. Background
Powers beginning new capital-ship (battleships and battle-cruisers) construction programs
Early 1921, British ordering four very large battle-cruisers
Plans for four matching battleships to follow
Burst of capital-ship construction kindled fears of a new naval arms race
Similar to Anglo-German Dreadnought race leading up to World War I

4. Background
Harding Administration, through Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes, invited nine countries having interests in Pacific/East Asia
Conference held 12 Nov 1921 to 6 Feb 1922
Three major agreements reached
Four Power Treaty: maintained territorial status quo in Pacific
Five-Power Treaty: attempted to prevent naval arms race
Nine-Power Treaty: continued principles of U.S. “Open Door Notes” of 1899

5. Background
Five-Power Treaty was also known as the Washington Naval Treaty
Limited naval armaments of five signatories: U.S., British Empire, Japan, France, Italy
Treaty signed 6 February 1922
Germany not affected
Its naval construction was already severely limited by the Treaty of Versailles

6. Terms of the Naval Treaty
Limited total capital ship tonnage of each power
In addition:
No single ship could exceed 35,000 tons
No ship could carry guns in excess of 16” (bore diameter)
Tonnage Limitations
COUNTRY CAPITAL SHIPS CARRIERS
British Empire 525,000 tons 135,000 tons United States 525,000 tons 135,000 tons Japan 315,000 tons ,000 tons France 175,000 tons 60,000 tons Italy 175,000 tons 60,000 tons
Tonnage excluded fuel and boiler water; British argued that their global activities demanded higher fuel loads than other nations and they should not be penalized.

7. Terms of the Naval Treaty
Aircraft carriers were addressed specifically by the treaty
Only 2 carriers/nation could exceed 27,000 tons
Those 2 were limited to 33,000 tons (33,500 t) each
Exception was made to allow battleships/battle-cruisers being built to be converted to aircraft carriers
Largest guns on carriers limited to 8” maximum
Not legal to put small aircraft on battleship and call it aircraft carrier

8. Terms of the Naval Treaty
Fortifications and naval bases
U.S., Britain, Japan agreed to maintain status quo
No new fortifications or naval bases to be established
Existing bases and defenses not to be improved in territories specified
Construction allowed on main coasts of countries, but not on smaller islands
U.S. could build on Hawaii and Alaskan mainland, but not on Aleutian Islands
Facilities of Royal Australian Navy and New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy could be built up, but not base of Hong Kong
Japan could build on home islands, but not Formosa

9. Terms of the Naval Treaty
Treaty members allowed to build, replace ships within terms of Treaty
Any build or replacement had to be directly communicated to the other Treaty signatories
Some exceptions made for ships in current use and under construction
New “heavy cruiser” class authorized
Ships limited to 10,000 tons, but armament specifications unclear

10. Terms of the Naval Treaty
1930, with Great Depression deepening, Washington Treaty was extended by London Naval Treaty
Limits on capital ships and aircraft carriers continued
Capital-ships tonnage limits now: 10/10/7 (U.K./U.S./Japan)
Capital ships now limited in numbers: 15/15/9 (U.K./U.S./Japan)
Cruisers now formally divided into heavy (8” guns) and light (6” guns) categories—still with 10,000-ton limit

11. Responses to the Treaty
Building programs changed
British gave up planned large battleships, battle-cruisers
Almost all powers built new “heavy cruisers,” but few new battleships were built
Powers attempted new battleship designs within treaty limitations
Weight limitations restricted hull length, ergo speed
U.S. used high-pressure boilers for higher speed in shorter ship
Germany (under Versailles limitations) tried high-strength steels for better armor, lower weight

12. Responses to the Treaty
Powers attempted new battleship designs within treaty limitations
Weight limitations restricted hull length, ergo speed
Britain designed ships that could have armor added after war began, used boiler feed-water tanks as part of protective scheme
Italy lied about tonnage of its ships
Japan withdrew from treaty in 1936
Resumed previous building program, including super-battleships with 460mm (18.1”) main guns

13. Responses to the Treaty
Aircraft Carriers
Italy, France (and Germany) did not build carriers until WWII was looming
British Royal Navy, with worldwide responsibilities, built six carriers between 1920 and 1939
U.S. Navy had one experimental carrier—built six more while converting first one to seaplane tender
Two—Lexington and Saratoga—were built on hulls of battle-cruisers that otherwise would have had to be scrapped
These two were 33,000 tons, w/8” guns, as permitted
Began six more starting in 1939

14. Responses to the Treaty
Aircraft Carriers
Japan converted incomplete battleship Kaga and incomplete battle-cruiser Akagi to carriers
Per same provisions as led to USS Lexington and Saratoga

15. Responses to the Treaty
Treaty created political crisis in Japan
U.S. had decrypted participants’ communications to home countries, in particular those of Japanese delegation
Knew what were minimum terms Japanese would accept
Japanese accepted 5/5/3 ratio, but felt snubbed, humiliated
Even though numbers actually were to Japan’s advantage
Japan only had to operate in one ocean, while U.S. had to operate in two, and Britain had to operate in three

16. Responses to the Treaty
Treaty created political crisis in Japan
Schism between “Treaty Faction” naval officers and ultranationalist naval and army officers
Contributed to deterioration in U.S.-Japan relations
29 December 1934, Japanese gave notice of withdrawal from London Naval Treaty
Provisions remained in force until end of 1936
Second London Naval Conference,
Japan withdrew, as did Italy
Resulting treaty was weak, largely evaded by signatories

17. American Actions Battleships U.S. Navy battleships during Treaty talks
South Carolina class (South Carolina, Michigan)
Both commissioned 1910, decommissioned by Feb 1922
Delaware class (Delaware, North Dakota)
Both commissioned 1910; Delaware scrapped in 1923; North Dakota scrapped in 1931
Florida class (Florida, Utah)
Both commissioned 1911; Florida decommissioned 1931; Utah converted to gunnery training ship 1931
Wyoming class (Wyoming, Arkansas)
Both commissioned 1912; Wyoming converted to gunnery training ship 1931; Arkansas served through WWII

18. USS South Carolina: South Carolina class battleship

19. USS Delaware: Delaware class battleship

20. USS Florida: Florida class battleship

21. USS Wyoming: Wyoming class battleship

22. American Actions Battleships U.S. Navy battleships during Treaty talks
New York class (New York, Texas)
Both commissioned 1912, served through WWII
Nevada class (Nevada, Oklahoma)
First class of “Standard type” U.S. Navy battleships
Both commissioned 1916; at Pearl Harbor, Oklahoma sunk, Nevada damaged, repaired, served through WWII
Pennsylvania class (Pennsylvania, Arizona)
Both commissioned 1916; at Pearl Harbor, Arizona sunk, Pennsylvania damaged, repaired, served through WWII

23. USS Texas: New York class battleship

24. USS Oklahoma: Nevada class battleship

25. USS Arizona: Pennsylvania class battleship

26. American Actions Battleships U.S. Navy battleships during Treaty talks
New Mexico class (New Mexico, Mississippi, Idaho)
Commissioned , served through WWII
Tennessee class (Tennessee, California)
Commissioned ; both damaged at Pearl Harbor, served through WWII
Colorado class (Maryland)
Commissioned 1921, served through WWII
Sister ships Colorado, West Virginia, commissioned 1923, served through WWII
Sister ship Washington 76% completed, sunk as target 1924

27. USS New Mexico: New Mexico class battleship

28. USS Tennessee on 10 Dec 1941, still wedged between her mooring piers and the sunken USS West Virginia: Tennessee class battleship

29. USS Maryland on 7 December 1941, next to the capsized USS Oklahoma: Colorado class battleship

30. USS West Virginia on 7 December 1941: Colorado class battleship

31. American Actions Battleships
U.S. Navy battleships never completed due to talks
South Dakota class (South Dakota, Indiana, Montana, North Carolina, Iowa, Massachusetts)
Last class of “Standard type” battleships
All cancelled prior to launch 1923 and scrapped in accordance with terms of Washington Naval Treaty

32. American Actions Battleships U.S. Navy “treaty battleships”
North Carolina class (North Carolina, Washington)
Commissioned early 1941; last class finished prior to WWII
First of new fast battleships, with 16” main guns
Probably best class of all powers’ treaty battleships
Both ships served through WWII
Washington sank Japanese battle-cruiser Kirishima in 1-on-1 fight, night of 14/15 Nov 1942
South Dakota class (South Dakota, Indiana, Massachusetts, Alabama)
Last “treaty battleships”
Shorter, better-armored, slower than North Carolinas
All served through WWII

33. USS North Carolina: North Carolina class battleship

34. USS Indiana: South Dakota class battleship

35. American Actions Battleships U.S. Navy battle-cruisers
Lexington class (Lexington, Constellation, Saratoga, Ranger, Constitution, United States)
Construction on all began
Lexington, Saratoga were converted to aircraft carriers in accordance with terms of Washington Naval Treaty
Remaining four had construction halted, eventually were scrapped

36. Painting of never-completed Lexington class battle-cruiser

37. American Actions Aircraft Carriers U.S. Navy “treaty carriers”
Lexington class (Lexington, Saratoga)
Converted from Lexington class battle-cruisers
Both commissioned 1927; largest U.S. carriers until 1945
Lexington sunk at Battle of Coral Sea, 1942; Saratoga served through WWII
Set pattern for future U.S.N. carriers: large, with long flight decks, starboard-side “islands” and high-volume hangar decks
Ranger class (Ranger)
Commissioned 1934
Proved to be too small
Served through WWII, mostly in secondary operations

38. American Actions Aircraft Carriers U.S. Navy “treaty carriers”
Yorktown class (Yorktown, Enterprise)
Commissioned
Large, fast, flexible
Yorktown sunk at Battle of Midway, 1942; Enterprise served through WWII
Sister ship Hornet built after Treaty obligations ended; sunk at Battle of Santa Cruz, 1942
Wasp class (Wasp)
Built to use up last 15,000 tons allowed under Treaty
Used smaller version of Yorktown-class hull
Odd, compromised design; too small and too lightly protected
Sunk at Guadalcanal, 1942

39. USS Lexington: Lexington class aircraft carrier

40. USS Ranger: Ranger class aircraft carrier

41. USS Enterprise: Yorktown class aircraft carrier

42. USS Wasp: Wasp class aircraft carrier

43. Conclusion
Effects of Washington Naval Treaty, and follow-on London treaties
Naval arms race halted
U.S., Britain, Japan built more aircraft carriers than otherwise would have been the case
Japan became resentful; ultranationalists eventually took power, started war with China, leading to war with U.S.
Bottom line:
Unprecedented treaty system helped limit naval arms and preserve peace from 1922 to 1939