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Video Self-Modeling: An Effective Intervention Across Disability Areas and Age Groups
KATHY SCHAEFFER, M.ED. WHITNEY APPLEBY RICKY GREER WENDI L. JOHNSON, PHD., LP, LSSP TEXAS WOMAN’S UNIVERSITY DENTON, TX
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Various Interventions to teach new behaviors
Social Stories™, Comic Strip Conversations Incidental Teaching Schedules Task Lists Cue Cards Token Economy Gym Boss Can read about, talk about, and see behavior However, student does not see the action involved in the skill. Each of these strategies involves looking at a variety of behaviors from the student’s perspective The student can read about, talk about, & see different expected behaviors through the use of words and pictures While these approaches incorporate the student into the “picture”, the student doesn’t get to see the action involved in the skills targeted 2 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 2
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But What if the student could actually see themselves performing expected behaviors? Would behavior change and could it be a more significant change? 3 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 3
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Yes! Yes! Yes! If I can see it, I can do it!
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Temple Grandin “I THINK IN PICTURES. Words are like a second language to me. I translate both spoken and written words into full- color movies, complete with sound, which run like a VCR tape in my head. When somebody speaks to me, his words are instantly translated into pictures. Language-based thinkers often find this phenomenon difficult to understand, but in my job as an equipment designer for the livestock industry, visual thinking is a tremendous advantage. Visual thinking has enabled me to build entire systems in my imagination.” From Thinking in Pictures (p.1) 5 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 5
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Video Self-Modeling (VSM) Outline of Presentation
Importance of Intervention Theoretical Basis for VSM Review of Literature in the field How does VSM work? Utility of VSM, Types of VSM Forms of VSM Pros and Cons of VSM Intervention Movies Filming and Editing Videos TWU Research with VSM Examples of Interventions Application – How to make a VSM movie Discussion and Questions
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Importance of Intervention
The need for evidence-based intervention strategies in the schools is enormous. Federal educational regulations, such as the Individual with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) and No Child Left Behind (2002), require the use of evidence-based interventions to increase positive student outcomes in the schools (Collier, Fallon, Johnson, Sanetti, & DelCampo, 2012). Unfortunately, all too often intervention strategies are utilized that are lacking a strong research foundation, or confirmation that the strategy works with a specific population.
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Theoretical Basis for VSM
Attention and motivation are moderating variables. Through VSM, extraneous details can be removed to provide focus on the essential aspects of the targeted behaviors Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977, 1997) Learning and imitating is gained through observation Self-Efficacy develops through the perception of themselves as successful Possible decrease in anxiety vs. in vivo role plays For example: elimination of extraneous detail can be important for students with ASD who have a tendency to focus on irrelevant details. Learning through modeling is an essential component to a young child’s educational process. Bandura demonstrated that children learn a large portion of acquired skills through observing, and then mirroring the actions of others (1977). Furthermore, Bandura discussed how children’s perception of their own self-efficacy, which is important for social adaptability, can be acquired through external reinforcements, praise, and most importantly, observations of their own success (1994). These important tenets of Bandura’s social learning theory provide the theoretical foundation for video self-modeling interventions (1977).
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Social Learning Theory and Modeling History
Albert Bandura: Theories of Social Learning & Self- Efficacy The Bobo Doll Studies (1977) Alburt Bandura’s work on social learning theory - modeling has an impact on child development; children acquire skills through observation and not just personal experience; no reinforcement is needed and behavior will occur in other settings; Attention and motivation are essential to motivational learning; In the 1960’s Bandura conducted several studies (the bobo doll studies) which showed that children who are presented with a model of aggressive toy playing behavior will often imitate that behavior by using some of the same aggressive behavior patterns and aggressive language as that which was modeled. In one study, preschoolers watched a model aggressing against a large blow up doll by hitting, kicking and yelling aggressive phrases. After watching the model the children responded in the same way when presented with the same blow up doll. Bandura’s work varied from the behavioral perspective of his time - where reinforcement is given for a correct response. If a child is not performing a behavior, reinforcement to increase that behavior cannot occur. His view of modeling as a form of teaching was shown to be able to target behaviors that might not yet exist. Video modeling has been developed to facilitate observational learning 9 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 9
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Bandura Bobo Doll Studies
Young children viewed a young adult beating on a Bobo doll hit with hammer, sit on it, yell at it When presented with a Bobo doll and hammers, children interacted with the Bobo doll as they had seen the model do without any reinforcement or adult encouragement The subjects were 36 boys and 36 girls enrolled in the Stanford University Nursery' School. They ranged in age from 37 to 69 months, with a mean age of 52 months. Two adults, a male and a female, served in the role of model, and one female experimenter conducted the study for all 72 children. For this reason, in addition to punching the Bobo doll, a response that is likely to be performed by children independently of a demonstration, the model exhibited distinctive aggressive acts which were to be scored as imitative responses. The model laid the Bobo doll on its side, sat on it and punched it repeatedly in the nose. The model then raised the Bobo doll, pick up the mallet and struck the doll on the head. Following the mallet aggression, the model tossed the doll up in the air aggressively and kicked it about the room. This sequence of physically aggressive acts was repeated approximately three times, interspersed with verbally aggressive responses such as, "Sock him in the nose," "Hit him down...," "Throw him in the air," "Kick him," "Pow," and two non-aggressive comments, "He keeps coming back for more" and "He sure is a tough fella."Thus in the exposure situation, subjects were provided with a diverting task which occupied their attention while at the same time insured observation of the model's behavior in the absence of any instructions to observe or to learn the responses in question. Since subjects could not perform the model's aggressive behavior, any learning that occurred was purely on an observational or covert basis. Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 10
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http://www.holah.karoo.net/bandurastudy.htm 11
The experimental room contained a variety of toys including some that could be used in imitative or nonimitative aggression, and others that tended to elicit predominantly nonaggressive forms of behavior. The aggressive toys included a 3-foot Bobo doll, a mallet and peg board, two dart guns, and a tether ball with a face painted on it which hung from the ceiling. The nonaggressive toys, on the other hand, included a tea set, crayons and coloring paper, a ball, two dolls, three bears, cars and trucks, and plastic farm animals. Subjects in the aggression condition reproduced a good deal of physical and verbal aggressive behavior resembling that of the models, and their mean scores differed markedly from those of subjects in the nonaggressive and control groups who exhibited virtually no imitative aggression. The prediction that exposure of subjects to aggressive models increases the probability [p. 578] of aggressive behavior is clearly confirmed (see Table 2). The main effect of treatment conditions is highly significant both for physical and verbal imitative aggression. Imitation was not confined to the model's aggressive responses. Approximately one-third of the subjects in the aggressive condition also repeated the model's nonaggressive verbal responses while none of the subjects in either the nonaggressive or control groups made such remarks. 11 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 11
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Bandura- self-efficacy
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I know I can: I saw myself do it.
Photo: Dollywood
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Basic Definition of Video Self-Modeling (VSM)
Intervention where observers are shown edited videotapes of themselves successfully engaging in an activity 14 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 14
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VSM Defined Definition of Video Self Modeling (VSM)
“A specific application of video modeling that allows the individual to imitate targeted behaviors by viewing her or himself successfully performing behavior” ( Dowrick, 1999) “Video self modeling is a strength-based, efficient, and durable intervention that has demonstrated efficacy in treating a variety of student problem behaviors.” (Dowrick, 1999; Hitchcock, Dowrick, & Prater, 2003) Video self modeling can be used with students of various educational backgrounds and abilities. Video self modeling can be modified to suit the needs of the student i.e. usage of words displayed on a screen for verbal or non verbal students
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Application and Research Basis for VSM
Language development (Buggey, 1995; Haarman & Greelis, 1982; Wert & Neisworth, 2003) Daily Living Skills (Miklich, Chida, & Danker-Brown, 1977 Self-efficacy (Schunk & Hansen, 1989) Disruptive and Non-compliant Behaviors (Buggey, 2005; McCurdy & Shapiro, 1988; Hosford & Brown, 1976; Creer & Miklich, 1970) Social Engagement (Bellini, Akullian, & Hopf, 2007; Buggey, Toombs, Gerdener, & Cervetti, 1999; Hepting & Goldstein, 1992; Pigott & Gonzales, 1987) Attention Difficulties (Davis, 2004; Hartley, Bray, & Kehle, 1998) Research on VSM has indicated that this technique often provides immediate, positive outcomes for students of all ages and can be applied with a wide range of clinical disorders, such as Autism Spectrum Disorders, selective mutism, communication disorders, reading disabilities, emotional and behavioral difficulties, as well as in the training of functional skills (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Bray & Kehle, 1996; Buggey, 1995; Kehle, Madaus, Baratta, and Bray, 1998; Prater, Carter, Hitchcock, & Dowrick, 2012; Wert & Neisworth, 2003). After cessation of this intervention, positive outcomes are typically maintained and are often generalized to other settings (Hitchcock et al.). While the results are promising, in most of the studies the sample sizes are small and many have utilized a single-subject design (Buggey & Ogle, 2012).
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Why so effective with children?
Bandura - Self-Efficacy = I know I can. Bandura - The best models are those most similar to the viewer in all attributes. No Social Obligations. Limits distractions. Kehle – Not only does VSM supply new memories, it also seems to supplant old ones. Grandin - “When people talk to me I convert their words to pictures.”
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How does VSM work? Strength based educational programming
Positive approach to promoting appropriate student behaviors rather than exclusively decreasing negative behaviors Can target specific skills that are essential in development Outcomes can be maintained and skills can be transferred across settings Videos are portable Collaboration between parents and staff are easily facilitated Video self-modeling (VSM) is strength-based intervention where a targeted positive behavior is captured on video through the use of supports such as peer or adult modeling, direct teaching of the skill, or role-play situations. The goal of VSM is to increase the frequency or quality of a desired behavior (Buggey, 2009). Unfortunately, all too often children with disabilities are known and categorized by their deficits, rather than a focus on their positive qualities by using strength-based programming and interventions (Bellini & McConnell, 2010). Through the use of scaffolding to obtain the desired behavior and then by editing out the support, VSM allows for individuals to view themselves being successful in an area of past behavioral or social difficulty. This viewing of positive behavior can lead to an increase in self-efficacy and a higher probability of demonstrating and generalizing the successful behavior to other settings.
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Utility of VSM Can be used with diverse student populations to:
Promote the acquisition of a skill Increased performance of a skill Reduce problem behaviors Works with AU population, as well as other populations, such as ED, ID, ADHD, to: Teach language Teach academic skills Functional skills Social skills Adaptive behaviors Can be used with behaviors that have been resistant to other interventions Works well with visual learners Provides high motivation since videos of self are highly desired Video self-modeling can be utilized in a positive self-review format where children and adolescents view captured occurrences of their best behavior. Another option is to use the video feed forward format where video clips are edited in order to depict the student performing an ideal behavior. For example, for a young child with autism who displays limited verbal skills VSM may be utilized to increase his verbalizations by splicing together single words into cohesive sentences so that the child views himself successfully saying a full, complete sentence. VSM began appearing in the literature in the 1970’s (Creer & Miklich, 1970), but only recently with the increased availability of video technology and computer editing software, has VSM been readily accessible to most individuals. VSM is a cost effective, easily maintained intervention method that also allows for straightforward collaboration with teachers and parents.
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Two Forms of Self-Modeling
Positive Self-Review: Reinforcing already known skills to improve performance/ fluency (sports applications - reviewing interview videos). In developmental sequences it would be one step beyond present functioning. Also applies to “replacement behaviors” for maladaptive behaviors. Laura Wilkerson - Olympic gold medalist uses vsm for training - positive self-review Feedforward: Video of skills not yet learned. Introducing a new skill or behavior through the editing process. Dowrick, 1977
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Positive Self Review Student views behaviors currently in repertoire that may not frequently manifest Video focuses on displaying the child’s success with the target behavior. Purpose: For low frequency, already mastered behavior to be reinforced through the child watching themselves succeed in the desired behavior. Build self-efficacy in the child to perform the behavior in the natural environment. Examples: Eating food with utensils Brushing teeth Sitting in a chair in class
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Video Feed Forward Child possesses a component of the social skill; however, hidden supports are utilized and then edited out. These target skills are ones that some children diagnosed with autism may not be able to perform naturally. Purpose: To increase the likelihood of the targeted behavior Introducing a new skill or behavior Examples: Speaking in short sentences. Performing multi-step actions Requesting something from an adult
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VSM Do’s Depict positive behaviors
Select developmentally appropriate behaviors Keep the video under 5 minutes (2-3 minutes is best) Ensure confidentiality if the video is to be used by schools or agencies Get informed consent Make the entire process fun Include child in the planning as much as possible Learn new technology skills Allow the child to view the video daily and when requested (if possible) Allow the child to watch the video without adult comment/feedback (if possible) -talk about how the video can include a clear written or verbal statement about the behavior on film so that the adult does not have to say anything while the child is watching the movie
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With VSM, it is best not to…
Depict any negative behaviors Select behaviors that are too advanced Get carried away with editing by using too many special effects (i.e. colors, sounds) Begin without obtaining parental consent Force the child to watch the video Show videos that will not hold the child’s attention Video is too long text when the child cannot read
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Steps to addressing a behavior using VSM
1. Identify the behavior to work on 2. Determine the function of the behavior 3. Identify some positive replacement behaviors 4. Figure out how to get the replacement behaviors on video Role plays Modeling/Imitation
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Three Methods of generating video
Have students role-play or imitate behavior that is being targeted Effective when targeting social or language skills Have the student involved (Director) Video, edit, & watch less time consuming Cool at school video 26 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 26
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Method 2 Provide the student with hidden supports that will enable the student to complete the task (Great for Academics) Video close footage of the student – excluding the provided supports Edit out the supports Create the illusion that the student completed the task without assistance 27 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 27
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Method 3 Tape the student over a period of time
Edit the footage to show only the desirable skills/behaviors that may be more rarely performed The following method is more suitable to students that are unable to role-play situations or who struggle with imitation. It is the most time consuming Show Cole video 28 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 28
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Different formats with VSM
Different formats for filming Make a story board or provide other visual cues Unscripted or naturalistic Movie set-up with a director, star, and co-star Practice role plays before filming Utilizing clips for a social story
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Storyboard Example
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Filming Cons Pros Need to have access to a camera Easy with tripod
Variety of camera options Most kids will love it Gives kids a chance to practice their social skills For positive self-review, can leave camera running Cons Need to have access to a camera Can be intrusive/intimidating at first Feed Forward method, can be a hassle to continually start and stop filming *usually helpful to have two people Can take several times to get good footage
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Filming Tips Remember Double-check that batteries are charged/camera plugged in and on Make sure that the movie format the camera uses is compatible with Windows/Mac Do extra takes even if you think you’ve “got it” Begin filming early (practice rounds) to give kids a chance to get used to being on camera
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Editing Cons Pros Takes time, but does get quicker with practice
Easy with today’s preinstalled software Windows Movie Maker iMovie Maybe add a picture in here
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Video Viewing Cons Pros Kids will not attend:
If too long If text is used and they cannot read Time consuming for teachers/parents Technology intimidation Pros Most kids enjoy seeing themselves in the video Enjoyable to be the “star” Focusing on strengths, kids all too often hear mostly negative feedback Build self-esteem Long-term skills for academic and job success, and interpersonal relationships I think you already said the “cons” of the kids will not attend in an earlier slide?
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Fitting VSM into a Positive Behavior Support Plan
Isolate undesirable behaviors or skills that need to be taught from authentic assessments. Establish baseline rates. If a social behavior, define positive representation of behavior or a replacement behavior. If an academic behavior, define a reasonable attainment point in the developmental sequence or a fluency rate beyond present ability. Videotape best or scripted performances. Edit. Student views tape. Monitor classroom/home changes in baseline performance. Adjust.
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TWU Research Studies Used VSM with various students:
Autism ADHD Emotional Disturbance Intellectual Disabilities Ranged from K to 12th grade
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Overview of VSM Study The primary purpose of the study is to examine the efficacy and utility of VSM interventions with children and adolescents with various disabilities by targeting behavioral, social, or functional/adaptive skill deficits. A secondary goal is to determine the usefulness of this intervention to parents and teachers and the social validity of using VSM in the schools. With most teachers feeling overwhelmed by trying to balance expectations related to state testing, teaching, federal guidelines, and paperwork, it is crucial to find interventions that are not only cost-effective but also user-friendly. If an intervention is too time-consuming or effortful, then it will likely not be utilized in the classroom.
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Overview of VSM Study A multiple-baseline across persons design was utilized with pre-testing and post-testing to determine if there is an increase in the desired behavior across settings. The participants were currently enrolled elementary, middle, and high school students from four special educational classes in a suburban school district north of Dallas, TX. The dependent variable was the increased frequency or quality of behavioral, social, or functional goal designed for each individual. Each participant was a part of a small group with baseline data collected on each individual. Once consent was obtained from the parent or adult student, the research began with three distinct phases – the baseline assessment phase, the VSM intervention phase, and the post-intervention assessment phase Grades PK-12, 4,087 students , 5 schools
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Participant Examples
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Matt Autism-Elementary Goal: Increase Following Directions
Baseline-20-30% Post-Intervention-70-72% Gained confidence, became more independent, rarely argued, needed much less prompting in general
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Terry Intellectual Disability-HS Goal: Increase use of AT device
Baseline: average use of 15% Post-Intervention: average use of 52%
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Jack ADHD-Elementary Goal-Following directions
Non-compliance from 30 minutes up to 3 hours daily Post-Intervention JR-ALE1-FA13 (ADHD group) Interview with teacher (Sept. 2013): He refused to follow directions and would hit and kick (once a day on average). He would also run out of the room at least two times a day. Non-compliance would last for anywhere between 30 minutes – 3 hours. Rated this behavior (not following directions) “10” in terms of how extreme it was. Rated this behavior (not following directions) “10” in terms of how much it negatively impacts educational progress. Interview with teacher (Jan. 2014): He is doing his work and stays in his area. He cleans up after himself and is using his words more. He is on task for longer periods of time. Rated this behavior (not following directions) “4” in terms of how much it negatively impacts educational progress – teacher noted it was “4 or 5 depending on the day.” She said that she still has to repeat directions, but not as frequently and he cooperates more quickly. He enjoyed watching the movie. The teacher would like to see him do independent work for longer periods of time without an adult checking on him as frequently. He will work quickly and is not concerned about mistakes.
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Parent Feedback from VSM Intervention
I have seen a huge improvement in his confidence and he now gets along so much better with his siblings. Just amazing. When she becomes upset, she will now take a few minutes to herself to calm down and rarely explodes. He is actually playing with some of the neighborhood children and sharing his toys, I have never seen him do that before. Her grades have increased, since she is now asking for help when she needs it. I have not received a behavioral notice from his teacher for over 2 months now, and I was receiving them almost daily.
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Teacher Feedback from VSM Intervention
His scores on the STAAR test increased significantly and I would attribute that to the VSM intervention. He is now following directions from all the staff, not just me. We rarely have to prompt him more than one time to follow directions. When she is upset, she now uses her quiet hands, quiet mouth to calm herself down when she is anxious, instead of disrupting the entire class. His grades went from 40’s-50’s to 70’s-80’s because he is now doing his work and is on-task about 80-90% of the time. I see that she has more friends, she actually introduced me to two of them before the pep rally yesterday.
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Example of Edited Video: Before and After
Now we will show you how you can edit out supports or erroneous information in the video prior to letting the student watch it.
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Before Note the background noise and prompting.
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After
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How to Edit Your Videos Yes, these slides were done by Kendall Bowles so you’ll need to give her credit
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Step 1: Open your video editing program
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Step 2: Import recoding from camera into program
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Step 3: Drag clip to editing timeline
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Step 4: Edit by Splitting
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Step 5: Remove unwanted sound
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Step 6: Add Transitions and Title
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Step 7: Publish Movie
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Video Editing Reference
HANDOUT FOR REFERENCE – “A HELPFUL STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE FOR CREATING AND EDITING YOUR VSM MOVIE” Compiled by Chris Carter For Later in presentation. Refer to handout and demonstrate video editing procedures in vivo
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References Bandura, A. Retrieved from Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency Bellini, S. & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of video modeling and video self-modeling interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional Children, 73 (3). Bellini, S., Akullian, J., & Hopf, A. (2007). Increasing social engagement in young children with autism spectrum disorders using video self-modeling. School Psychology Review, 16, Buggey, T. (1995). An examination of the effectiveness of videotaped self-modeling in teacher specific linguistic structures to preschoolers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 15, Buggey, T. (2005) VSM applications with students with autism spectrum disorder in a small private school setting. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), Buggey, T. (2007). A picture is worth Video self-modeling applications at school and home. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), Clare, S.K., Jenson, W.R., Kehle, T.J. & Bray, M.A. (2000). Self-modeling as a treatment for increasing on-task behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 37(6), p Collier-Meek, M.A., Fallon, L.M., Johnson, A.H., Sanetti, L.M., & DelCampo, M. A. (2012). Constructing self-modeling videos: Procedures and technology. Psychology in the schools, 49(1), doi: /pits.20614 Add to handout 57 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 57
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References Creer & Miklich (1970).The application of a self-modeling procedure to modify inappropriate behavior: a preliminary report. Behavior Research and Therapy, 8, 91-2. Dowrick, P.W. (1991). Practical guide to using video in the behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley. Dowrick, Kim-Rupnow, & Power. (2006). Video Feedforward for Reading. The Journal of Special Education, 39(4), Greenberg, Buggey, & Bond - Video Self-Modeling as a Tool for Improving Oral Reading Fluency and Self-Confidence (ERIC - # ED471091). Grandin, T. (1995). Thinking in pictures and other reports from my life with autism. New York: Doubleday. Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U. S. C et seq. (2004). No Child Left Behind, 20 U. S. C et seq. (2002). Simpson A., Langone, J., & Ayres, K. M. (2004). Embedded video and computer based instruction to improve social skills for students with autism. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 39(3), Wert & Neisworth. (2003). Effects of VSM on spontaneous requesting in children with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 5(1), 30-4. Add to handout 58 Teresa Lyons - Do not reproduce without permission - 58
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Questions and Discussion
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