1. CAREER COUNSELING THEORY

2. Frank Parsons (1909)

3. Frank Parsons – Father of Vocational Guidance
Vocational guidance is accomplished by:
Studying the individual
Surveying the occupations
Matching the individual with the occupation

4. Trait-Factor Theories
Trait-Factor Theory: The Trait-Factor theory of career development goes as far back as the early 1900’s and is associated mostly strongly with vocational theorists Frank Parsons and E.G. Williamson. Some of the basic assumptions that underlie this theory are:
Every person has a unique pattern of traits made up of their interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics, these traits can be objectively identified and profiled to represent an individual’s potential
Every occupation is made up of factors required for the successful performance of that occupation. These factors can be objectively identified and represented as an occupational profile
It is possible to identify a fit or match between individual traits and job factors using a straight forward problem-solving/decision making process.
The closer the match between personal traits and job factors the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction.

5. Trait-Factor Theories

6. Trait-Factor Theories: RIASEC Theory

7. Holland’s RIASEC Theory
In our culture, most people are one of six personality types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. Some refer to these as Holland Codes or RIASEC.
People of the same personality type working together create a work environment that fits their type. For example, when Artistic persons are together on a job, they create a work environment that rewards creative thinking and behavior -- an Artistic environment.
There are six basic types of work environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional. "Work" includes doing things to achieve a purpose, like paid and unpaid jobs, volunteering, sports, or hobbies.
People search for environments where they can use their skills and abilities and express their values and attitudes. For example, Investigative types search for Investigative environments; Artistic types look for Artistic environments, and so forth.
People who choose to work in an environment similar to their personality type are more likely to be successful and satisfied.

8. Holland’s RIASEC Theory

9. Trait-Factor Theories

10. Trait-Factor Theories: Person-Environment Correspondence (PEC)
The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)/Person-Environment Correspondence (PEC) describes the relationship of the individual to his or her work environment
TWA or PEC is an Individual-Differences Model developed by René V. Dawis and Lloyd H. Lofquist

11. Person-Environment Correspondence (PEC)
Work is conceptualized as an interaction between an individual and a work environment.
The work environment requires that certain tasks be performed, and the individual brings skills to perform the tasks.
In exchange, the individual requires compensation for work performance and certain preferred conditions, such as a safe and comfortable place to work.
The environment and the individual must continue to meet each other's requirements for the interaction to be maintained. The degree to which the requirements of both are met may be called correspondence. Work adjustment is the process of achieving and maintaining correspondence.
Work adjustment is indicated by the satisfaction of the individual with the work environment, and by the satisfaction of the work environment with the individual--by the individual's satisfactoriness.
Satisfaction and satisfactoriness result in tenure, the principal indicator of work adjustment. Tenure can be predicted from the correspondence of an individual's work personality with the work environment.
Work personalities and work environments can be described in terms of structure and style variables that are measured on the same dimensions.

12. Developmental Theories

13. Developmental Theories: Donald Super
Life-Span, Life-Space Approach
Occupational choice should be considered an unfolding process, not a point-in-time event
Self-concept system is the picture a person has of self in numerous roles and situations

14. Life-Span, Life Space Approach

15. Life Rainbow
A career is defined as the combination and sequence of roles played by a person during the course of a lifetime. These roles include those of child, pupil or student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, and pensioner, positions with associated expectations that are occupied at some time by most people.
A Life-Career Rainbow is presented as a means of helping conceptualize multidimensional careers, the temporal involvement in, and the emotional commitment to, each role

16. Life-Span, Life Space Approach

17. Archway Model
As its name suggests, the archway model is shaped in the form of an arch, which represents an individual’s career. Each stone of the arch symbolizes an influential factor or determinant of career. The most basic determinants are near the base with biology and environment forming the bottom of the base. An individual’s personality characteristics (e.g., intelligence, needs, values) form the column on the left. Societal characteristics (e.g., labor market, school, family) form the column on the right.
Although not represented graphically, these intrapersonal and environmental factors are assumed to interact with each other in determining an individual’s career development. The arch itself sits on these two pillars and signifies the outcomes of the two columns of personality and societal determinants. The two ends of the arch represent the developmental stages, with the left side containing the earlier developmental stages and the right side containing the later stages.
Finally the arch culminates to form the keystone, the central piece of the arch, which represents the person who makes the career decisions.

18. Developmental Theories:
Theory of Circumscription and Compromise
Linda Gottfredson

19. This theory, developed by Linda Gottfredson in 1981, attempts to describe how career choice develops in young people.
Circumscription and Compromise focuses on the development of an individual’s view of the occupational choices available.

20. Theory of Circumscription and Compromise – Stages:
Orientation to size and power (age 3–5). Children become aware that adults have roles in the world. They realize that they will eventually become adults and take on roles for themselves.
Orientation to sex roles (age 6–8). Children begin to categorize the world around them with simple concrete
distinctions. They become aware of the more recognizable job roles and begin to assign them to particular
sexes. They will start to see jobs which do not match their gender identity as unacceptable.
Orientation to social values (age 9–13). By now children have encountered a wider range of job roles and are
capable of more abstract distinctions. They begin to classify jobs in terms of social status (income, education
level, lifestyle, etc.) as well as sex-type. Based on the social environment in which they develop they will begin
to designate some jobs as unacceptable because they fall below a minimum status level (tolerable level
boundary) and some higher status jobs as unacceptable because they represent too much effort or risk of failure
(tolerable effort boundary).
Orientation to internal, unique self (age 14+). Until this point circumscription has been mainly an unconscious
process. As entry into the adult world approaches young people engage in a conscious search of the roles still
remaining in their social space. In this process they use increasingly complex concepts such as interests,
abilities values, work-life balance and personality to exclude options which do not fit with their self image and
identify an appropriate field of work.
After circumscription has excluded options outside a perceived social and personal space, the next process is one of
Compromise. In this stage, individuals may be inclined to sacrifice roles they see as more compatible with their self-concept
in favor of those that are perceived to be more easily accessible. In this they are often limited by their lack of
knowledge about how to access certain roles because of lack of information, lack of know-how and appropriate tactics,
and lack of helpful social connections.

21. Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

22. Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

23. Developmental Theories
Ginzberg, Ginzburg, Axelrad, and Herma (Ginzberg Group)
First to posit a theory of occupational choice from a developmental approach
Stressed the importance of early choices in the career decision making process
Occupational choice is a lifelong process that often requires re- assessment
Three stages of occupational choice (fantasy, tentative, realistic)
Useful approach for elementary school counselors (role of play and fantasy)
David Tiedeman and R.P. O’hara
Stresses the importance of ego identity and self-development
A decision making paradigm that parallels Erickson’s psycho-social stages
Ginzberg Group
Tiedeman & O’hara

24. Social-Learning & Cognitive Theories
John D. Krumboltz
(and your professor)

25. Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC)

26. Krumboltz revised his LTCC theory: Happenstance Theory

27. Planned Happenstance
There is a belief entrenched in American culture that career planning Is a logical and linear activity...
...But it’s not.
We are expected to choose a career from among thousands of possibilities, often before having a chance to explore one option. Even experts cannot always anticipate the economic, social, and political events that will impact employment. How can anyone be expected to prepare for a career in a world that is constantly emerging?
We do not always need a plan to create a career.
Instead, we need a plan to act on happenstance—
to transform unplanned events into career opportunity.
If you’ve ever had difficulty with choosing or changing a career, or moving your business forward, it might mean you are trying to rely too much on figuring it all out instead of preparing for happenstance.
Planned Happenstance is both attitude that you gain and actions you take. It is the view that you can create opportunities by taking action on your curiosity and on chance events.
Planned Happenstance is not just luck or being in the right place at the right time. It is a conscious, purposeful, and on-going process that will help you to build a more satisfying and fulfilling career.

28. Planned Happenstance® is a four-step process:
Clarify Ideas
Follow your curiosity and identify your interests
Remove The Blocks
Wonder “how I can” rather than “I can’t because...”
Expect The Unexpected
Be prepared for chance opportunities, such as unexpected phone calls, chance encounters, impromptu conversations and new experiences
Take Action
Learn, develop skills, remain open and follow-up on chance events

29. Being undecided can be reframed as open-mindedness
Planned Happenstance
Being undecided can be reframed as open-mindedness

30. Social Cognitive Career Theory (SSCT)
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is a relatively new theory that is aimed at explaining three interrelated aspects of career development:
(1) how basic academic and career interests develop,
(2) how educational and career choices are made, and
(3) how academic and career success is obtained.
The theory incorporates a variety of concepts (e.g., interests, abilities, values, environmental factors) that appear in earlier career theories and have been found to affect career development.
Developed by Robert W. Lent, Steven D. Brown, and Gail Hackett in 1994, SCCT is based on Albert Bandura’s general social cognitive theory, an influential theory of cognitive and motivational processes that has been extended to the study of many areas of psychosocial functioning, such as academic performance, health behavior, and organizational development.

31. SCCT is based on Bandura’s social learning theory and triadic reciprocal interaction system

32. SSCT – Three primary tenets:
Self-efficacy refers to the beliefs people have about their ability to successfully complete the steps required for a give task. Individuals develop their sense of self-efficacy from personal performance, learning by example, social interactions, and how they feel in a situation.
Outcome expectations are the beliefs related to the consequences of performing a specific behavior. Typically, outcome expectations are formed thorough past experiences, either direct or vicarious, and the perceived results of these experiences.
Goals are seen as playing a primary role in behavior. A goal is defined as the decisions to begin a particular activity or future plan. Behavior is organized or sustained based on these previously set goals (Lent et al., 1994).

33. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)

34. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
Peterson, Sampson, Reardon and Lenz have developed what is known as the “Cognitive Information Processing” (CIP) approach to career decision making.
CIP is based on a tri-level pyramid, with self-knowledge and occupational knowledge as the foundation, which comprises two Knowledge Domains.
The second level of the pyramid is the Decision-Making Skills Domain, composed of five information-processing skills known as CASVE:
1. Communication
2. Analysis
3. Synthesis
4. Valuing
5. Executing

35. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)

36. Cognitive Information Processing (CIP)
The top tier of the pyramid consists of the Executive Processing Domain, which focuses on metacognition (thinking about our thinking). This is the monitoring/evaluation part of the thought process, where we ask, “How is it working? What would improve it? What adjustments could/should I make?”

37. Three basic CIP principles:
1. Self-knowledge is based on perception rather than fact, and is influenced by past experience and present feelings (Peterson, Sampson, Reardon and Lenz). Understanding a person’s perceptions is an important task for career counseling professionals.
2. Knowledge about occupational options is based on facts that can be verified. “What skills are required? Where do these occupations exist? What do they pay? What is the outlook?” (See Parsons’ “Trait & Factor Theory.”) Career professionals can assist clients by providing access to current, detailed labor market information.
3. In today’s fast-paced society, decisions will need to be re- made and adjusted many times over (See H.B. Gelatt’s “Positive Uncertainty.”) Teaching decision-making skills will allow clients to approach inevitable changes over the course of their career.

38. CIP: Six Steps to Using CASVE with clients:
1. Communication: Knowing I need to make a choice
2. Analysis: Understanding myself and my options
3. Synthesis: Expanding and narrowing my list of options
4. Valuing: Choosing an occupation, program of study, or job
5. Execution: Implementing my choice
6. Communication: Knowing I made a good choice

39. CIP: CASVE Cycle

40. Person-in-Environment Perspective

41. Career Construction Theory
Mark Savickas
and your Professor

42. Career Construction Theory
Individuals have one or more life themes that guide their career choices
These life themes become apparent as individuals tell their life stories
Individuals construct their careers by imposing meaning on what they do in work – meaning that helps them live out their life themes
In today’s uncertain world, adaptability is exceedingly important

43. An additional career theory worth considering: Ann Roe – A Needs Approach
Roe’s theory can be separated into two key areas: theoretical aspects of personality and classification of occupations. Inspired by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Roe incorporated the psychological needs that develop out of parent-child interactions in her conceptualization of personality.
Roe classified parent-child interaction patterns into three categories, each with two subcategories: (1) emotional concentration on the child, further classified as being overprotective or over-demanding, (2) avoidance of the child, further classified as emotional rejection or neglect, and (3) acceptance of the child, further classified as casual or loving.
Roe’s interest in parent-child interactions led to the development of the Parent-Child Relations Questionnaire and its revision as a means of accurately assessing such interactions. Out of parent-child interactions, Roe thought that children went on to develop an orientation either toward or not toward people.

44. Other career theories:
Value-Based, Holistic Model of Career and Life-Role Choices and Satisfaction:
Duane Brown
Values are the fundamental building block of personality and considered most important in the career decision making process
Sociological Perspective on Work and Career Development
Emphasize the interrelationship of psychological, sociological, and economic factors
Status attainment theory, sociology of labor markets, race and gender, school processes, family effects, work commitment/environment
Chaos Theory: Robert Pryor & Jim Bright
The complexity of influences on career development make accurate
predictability challenging.
Elements of chaos theory that can be used to help counselors assist clients
include:
Complexity
Emergence
Nonlinearity
Unpredictability
Phase Shifts
Attractors

45. Additional important names in career counseling/theory:
Sunny Hansen: Integrated Life Planning (ILP): A Holistic Theory for Career Counseling with Adults
Life Planning includes work/career but also multiple aspects of life and their interrelatedness
Quilts and quilters are a primary metaphor (various pieces fitting together to make a whole along with the care and nurturing {counselors} that go into making a quilt)
A second metaphor, Mother Earth, an image that evokes wholeness and connectedness

46. Additional important names in career counseling/theory
David Blustein: “Integrative Relationship Theory of Working”
In this original and major work, David Blustein places working at the same level of attention for social and behavioral scientists and psychotherapists as other major life concerns, such as intimate relationships, physical and mental health, and socio- economic inequities.
The Psychology of Working perspective is an alternative to traditional career development theories which have primarily explored the lives of those with choice and volition in their working lives. This perspective addresses the lives of those who traditionally have been ignored or forgotten because of their social class or as a result of racism and other forms of social oppression (based on disability status, sexual orientation, immigration status, age, gender, poverty, and/or lack of access to material and social resources and opportunities).

47. Additional important names:
David Blustein
Richard Knowdell (Knowdell Card Sorts)

48. Additional important names:
John Crites: Career Maturity & Developed a comprehensive model of career counseling
Chaos theory of careers – Jim Bright & Robert Pryor

49. Additional important names: H.B. Gelatt