1. EFEE made the basic training manual for Rock blasting education in 2004.
The ESSEEM project was carried out through the years 2008 – 2010.
NFF (Norwegian Tunneling Society) was the contractor.
The project had partners from 6 European countries.

2. European Shotfirer Standard Education for Enhanced Mobility – ESSEEM –
Frank
Hammelmann
Jörg
Rennert
Erik
Nilsson
Juoko
Salonen
Aslak
Ravlo
European Shotfirer Standard
Education for Enhanced Mobility
– ESSEEM –
Ferjencik
Milos
Walter
Werner
Jose Carlos
Gois
Karl
Kure
Antonio
Vieira

3. The training material prepared by the ESSEEM project included about 1300 slides and images. The level was to high to be used for the education of shotfirers. A Norwegian/Swedish group has evaluated the slides and images, and has reduced the content. The new version of the ESSEEM slides and images program was presented in the EFEE-workshop in Zandvoort at the end of April 2013.

4. NFF working group: 11 experienced blasters and blast designers, contractors and advisers
NFF : Jan Kristiansen Karl Kure
Amund Bruland Bjørn Petterson
Aslak Ravlo Hans Christen Evensen
Vegard Olsen Thor Andersen
Olav Fjellstad John Eriksen
BEF : Jan Johansson,

5. The Working Group has taken into account the comments provided by participants in the workshop and presents herewith an edited version of the training material. There will still be some chapters that could better suit the educational requirements for the education of a modern European blaster. However, this must be presented in future revised versions. This version is now free to be used for the EFEE members who wants to translate the training means to the national language August 2013 NFF, Norwegian EFEE, Shotfiring Tunneling Society Comittee

6. European Shotfirer Standard Education For Enhanced Mobility – ESSEEM –
Copyright Notice
The pages and documents developed during the ESSEEM project are subject to copyright .Unless you have prior written permission from European Federation of Explosives Engineers (EFEE), no part of these pages and documents may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means to a third party. You are granted the right to use the material received and making copies for private use only. This right does not grant you, or any person, the right to include any of the materials in a published work without prior written permission from EFEE.

7. European Shotfirer Standard Education For Enhanced Mobility – ESSEEM –
Disclaimer
Please note that the information developed in the ESSEEM project is of a general nature and is intended to be a guideline for the course leading to an EFEE rock blasting certificate. Professional advice should be taken before any course of action is pursued. The information presented here is offered free of charge and, accordingly, EFEE takes no responsibility for any loss occasioned by the use of the information presented here for whatever reason. .

8. by LEDAP-Laboratory of Energetics and Detonics Portugal
ESSEEM WP4 Explosives by
LEDAP-Laboratory of Energetics and Detonics
Portugal

9. Competences required in Explosives
Shotfire shall be familiar with the composition of commonly used explosives, their performance, handling characteristics and limitations while using various qualities of explosives.
Which capabilities shotfire should demonstrate?
Knowledge and understanding of the different sensitivity of explosives and transportation classification.
Knowledge and understanding of the composition and characteristics of the different explosives which can be used according the characteristics of the rocks or other materials to be blasted.
Planning the quantity and the energy of alternative qualities of explosives to be used for a well-charged drillhole.

10. Training plan Contents Time (6 hours)
1. Explosive definition and characterisation of chemical reaction
30 min
2. Classifications of explosives according their characteristics
45 min
3. Explosives for civil uses
60 min
4. Notified body / CE mark / norms and explosives characterisation
5. Transport and handling of explosives
6. Explosives selection criteria
7. Disposal of explosives waste
Key questions and discussion

11. Symbols Fundamental knowledge Supplementary knowledge Danger
To read more
Link

12. Explosives Engineering
Explosive definition and characterisation of chemical reaction

13. Explosive definition
Explosive - a chemical compound or mixture, that contains a Large amount of stored energy that can produce an explosion.
When initiated by the action of heat, impact, or friction produce large volume of hot gases in a very short time at high temperature and pressure.
Expansion of hot gas can do mechanical work on the surrounding materials.
High speed photo of the expansion of the detonation products of a dynamite explosive cartridge.

14. Detonations generate high pressures
Detonation is a chemical reaction which moves through the explosive material at a velocity greater than the sound of speed through the same material.
Detonations generate high pressures
The effect is usually much more destructive than deflagrations

15. Detonation velocity
Detonation velocity: velocity with which the reaction process propagates in the mass of the explosive.
The are two general methodologies to measure the detonation velocity:
Point-to-point velocity test: using two or more points in the explosive charge and measure the time interval of the detonation wave between these points. Ionisation probes mounted in copper or aluminum shell are inserted into the explosive cartridge at a fixed spacing. The detonation wave from the explosive crushes the shell and close the circuit. An electronic chronograph with an accuracy of 0,1 s should be used for the test. Fibers optic are also available as probes.
Continuous velocity test: various methods are possible to record the signal.
Streak camera : Record the light of detonation front through a narrow slit positioned along the charge.
Resistance wire: This test requires a high-resistance probe, a constant tension generator and an oscilloscope.

16. Detonation velocity
Most of commercial explosives used today have a detonation velocity which fall in the range of 3000 to 5500 m/s.
The detonation velocity is affected by temperature in explosives such as watergels
The detonation velocity generally decreases with decreasing density of the explosive charge.

17. Detonation velocity Detonation velocity (D)
Hard confinement
Detonation velocity (D)
Soft confinement
Reciprocal of charge diameter (1/d)
The detonation velocity decreases with decreasing charge diameter and with decreasing of mechanical resistance of the confinement.

18. Deflagration
Deflagration – describe subsonic reaction that usually propagates through thermal conductivity (hot burning material heats the next layer of cold material and ignites it).
Most "fire" found in daily life, from flames to explosions, is technically deflagration.
Deflagration is different from detonation (which is supersonic and propagates through shock compression).
In engineering applications, deflagrations are easier to control than detonations.
Typical examples of deflagrations:
Combustion of a fuel-air mixture in an internal combustion engine
Rapid burning of a gunpowder in a firearm
Pyrotechnic mixtures in fireworks.

19. Deflagration to Detonation Transition (DDT)
Under certain conditions, mainly in terms of geometrical conditions such as partial confinement and many obstacles, the reaction front may accelerate to supersonic speed. Then a transition may take place from deflagration to detonation (DDT).
There are reports about deflagration to detonation with burning of emulsions wastes.

20. Differences between Deflagration and Detonation
Combustion
Deflagration
Detonation
Duration of reaction
Long
Few ms
Few µs
Chemical decomposition velocity
m/s
Hundred m/s
Few km/s
Overpressure
Negligible
Range
bar
60 – 400 bar
Effects
Heat, light
and gases
High
impulse force
Shock wave

21. Density
Density of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume (g/cm3).
Several methods of loading are available, including pellet loading, cast loading and press loading.
Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-99% of the theoretical maximum density (TMD) of the explosive.

22. Density
High load density can reduce sensitivity by making the mass more resistant to internal friction.
However, if density is increased to the extent that individual crystals are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive.
Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power.
It is possible to compress an explosive beyond a point of sensitivity, known also as "dead-pressing," in which the material is no longer capable of being reliably initiated.

23. Detonation pressure
Detonation pressure is generally considered as the pressure at the beginning of the reaction zone.
The detonation pressure is a product of the density, the detonation velocity and the particle velocity of the reacting explosive at the front of the reaction zone.
The detonation pressure can be obtained in good approximation with the formula:
P = 0,25 x r x D2
D – Detonation velocity
 - Density

24. Detonation pressure
The detonation pressure may be an important factor in fragmentation.
The detonation pressure should not be confused with the borehole or explosion pressure, which is the pressure of the explosive gases expanded to the initial volume of the borehole.
The explosion pressure is theoretically about 45 percent of the detonation pressure assuming complete reaction at the detonation front.

25. Detonation pressure
Detonation pressure for civil explosives is in the range 50 kbar kbar.
ANFO: about 50 kbar
Emulsion explosives: about 80 kbar
Dynamite: about 150 kbar

26. Chemical energy of an explosive
When the explosive is initiated the chemical energy is the responsible for the production of a rapid self-propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more stable substances.
The chemical energy is the potential of a substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction.

27. Chemical energy of an explosive
When the explosive is initiated the chemical energy is the driving force for the production of a rapid self-propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more stable substances.
The chemical energy is the potential of a substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction.

28. Heat of explosion
Heat of explosion or heat (energy) of detonation (QD) is the energy released from the chemical reaction that occurs during the detonation of an explosive.

29. Rock-breaking performance of explosives
Many tests have been proposed to predict the rock-breaking performance of explosives:
Ballistic mortar
Underwater tests:
Shock energy
Measures the explosive’s shattering action in other materials, such as rock
Bubble energy
Measures the “heaving action” of the explosive. It is the potential energy of the displaced water at the maximum size of the bubble.
Total energy = Shock energy + Bubble energy

30. Weight strength concept
Weight strength means the relative chemical energy output between an explosive and standard ANFO.
Emulsion (without additives ) has a calculated energy of 3,0 MJ/kg. ANFO has a calculated chemical energy of 3,8 MJ/kg. The relative weight strength of emulsion will be 80%.
Terminology about explosive energy:
Relative Weight Strength (RWS) in %: the heat of reaction per unit weight of an explosive compared to the energy of an equal weight of standard ANFO.
Relative Bulk Strength (RBS) in %: The heat of reaction per unit volume of an explosive compared to the energy of an equal volume of standard ANFO at a given density.

31. Critical diameter
Critical diameter or failure diameter is the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave.
The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.
The critical diameter is determined by go/no go tests which are relatively expensive and time consuming.
Critical diameter depends on the confinement, particle size, density and ambient temperature.
The critical diameter can be determined in principle by a single test through the application of conical geometry.

32. Explosives Engineering
2. Classifications of explosives and their characteristics

33. Fumes toxicity
The gas reaction products resulting from the detonation of commercial explosives and blasting agents consist principally of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.
But poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) may be present to some exrtent in the detonation products.
Hazard symbol

34. Fumes toxicity
Permissible explosives are approved according the limits accepted by the authorities.
The most efficient method to determine the amount of pollutants is to take on-site measurement after the blast.

35. Fumes toxicity
Ventilation is required in order to minimise level of toxic fumes in underground blasting.

36. Shock , friction and heat sensitivity
Represents the capacity of the explosive to be initiated into detonation by, impact, friction or by heat.
This refers to the amount and intensity of shock, friction, or heat that is required.
When the term sensitivity is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion.
The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat.

37. Shock , friction and heat sensitivity
Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows:
Impact sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode.
Friction sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes).
Heat sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs.

38. Test methods for explosives
Impact sensitivity test (Fallhammer apparatus)
A sample of the tested explosive is subjected to the action of a drop weight.
The parameter to be determined is the mass of the drop weight and the drop height (i.e. impact energy) at which the initiation of the sample may occur.
The BAM Impact Apparatus is presented in Figure 2.2.

39. Fig. 2.2. BAM Impact sensitivity apparatus

40. Friction sensitivity test
Friction is created electromechanically between the cylindrical porcelain pistil and the plate bearing the sample.
The mass of the weight and its position on the loading arm determine the loading on the pistil (i.e. the normal force between the porcelain plate and pistil).
The BAM Friction Sensitivity Apparatus is shown in Figure 2.3.

41. Fig. 2.3. BAM friction sensitivity apparatus. [Ref.11]

42. Transmission of detonation in open air test
The term transmission of detonation or sympathetic detonation denotes the phenomenon of initiation of an explosive charge by the detonation of a neighboring charge (this definition is valid for gases, liquids and solid media).
The method is based on the determination of the distance between the donor and the acceptor of charge of given masses at which transmission of failure of detonation occurs (see Figure 2.4).

43. Fig. 2. 4. Test setup for the determination of transmission
Fig Test setup for the determination of transmission of detonation through the air. [Ref.11]

44. Classification of explosives in terms of chemical composition
Explosives can be composed by a single, molecular explosive or a mixture of several explosives substances:
Molecular explosives: chemical substances that contain just one well-defined molecule.
Examples: PETN and Nitroglycerine.
Composite explosives: mixture of two or more explosive substances.
Examples: Dynamite, ANFO, water-gels and emulsions explosives.

45. Comparison of explosives - Civil explosives -
Civil explosives have in general lower stability when compared with military explosives.
Storage time is short (months or few years).
They are developed for densities between 0,8 to 1,5 g/cm3
Maximum explosion energy varies from 2,3 to 7,5 MJ/kg

46. Comparison of explosives - Civil explosives (cont.)-
Commercial explosives are used in civil applications and can be divided in:
Conventional explosives: dynamite (granular, gelatinous and semigelatinous).
These mixtures are usually manufactured with explosives substances.
Blasting agents: ANFO, ANFO aluminized, heavy ANFO, slurries/water gels explosives and emulsion explosives.
These mixtures are usually manufactured with non- explosive substances.
High explosives for special use: Plasticized Explosive and Cast Explosive based on TNT, PETN, RDX and HMX.

47. Comparison of explosives - Civil explosives -
According to its appearance civil explosives can be divided in:
Gelatinous explosives
Very good water resistance
Good for wet boreholes and extreme weather conditions
Good plasticity
Better consistency
Semigelatinous explosives
Good water resistance
Granular explosives
Poor water resistance
Low consistency without confinement .

48. Explosives Engineering
3. Explosives for civil use

49. Explosives for civil uses
Conventional explosives
Dynamite
Basting agents
ANFO
Emulsion explosives
Blends and Heavy ANFO
Slurries/Watergels
Black power

50. Variation in consumption of explosives for civil use in Europe
k tonnes
Adopted from: The Future of civil explosives -
Federation of European Explosives Manufacturers -
Institute of Makers of Explosives -

51. Black powder
Black powder, is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate.

52. Black powder It is an explosive substance
It burns rapidly, as deflagration, producing a great volume of gases which can be used as a propellant in firearms and as a pyrotechnic composition in fireworks.
In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock. However, because of its low brisance, black powder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other explosives, making black powder useful for blasting ornamental rocks such as granite and marble.

53. Black powder Is extremely easy initiated by flames or sparks.
When unconfined it burns with a high temperature
When it is initiated confined it will explode

54. Dynamite
The first dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel who had developed a process for industrial production of nitroglycerine (NG)
Modern dynamite explosive consist of NG and nitroglycol as sensitizer and plasticiser, mixed with a blend of fuel and oxidizer powder consisting of fuels such as wood-meal and oxidizers such a ammonium nitrate (AN) or sodium nitrate (SN).
The purpose of NG is to provide energy and sensitivity.

55. Types of dynamite
There are three basic types of dynamite: granular, semigelatin, and gelatin. The basic distinction is that gelatin and semigelatin dynamites contain nitrocelulose (NC). The viscosity of this product depends on the percent of NC.
Ammonia-granular dynamites are dynamites in which the primary source of energy is derived from the reaction of ammonium and sodium nitrate with various fuels.
Semigelatin dynamites are ammonia dynamites which contain a small amount of NC as a gelling agent.
Gelatin dynamites have NC, rather than absorbent dopes, to retain the the NG and to maintain the product consistency. They have greater water resistance and higher detonation velocity in comparison with the above mentioned types of dynamite.

56. Ammonia-granular dynamites
The primary source of energy is derived from the reaction of ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate with various fuels.
Ammonium nitrate / various fuels with an explosive energy about 70 % that of NG, replaces NG as a primary energy source.
NG contributes to the explosive energy and sensitivity

57. Semigelatin dynamites
Semigelatin dynamites have higher percentages of NG than Ammonia-granular dynamites.
The combination of NC and NG form a gel which improve the product’s water resistance. It also contributes to give the product a semi gelatinous texture.
Semi gelatine dynamites have a slightly higher VOD than granular dynamites of equal strength. Semi gelatine dynamites can have different formulations to vary VOD, density and water resistance.
Typical use: underground mining and quarry blasting.

58. Gelatin dynamites
Gelatin dynamites use NC rather than absorbent dopes to retain the NG and to maintain product consistency.
Product consistency varies from soft to tough, rubbery gel, depending on the content of NG/NC.
They have a higher NG and NC content than semi gelatines which increase VOD and improves water resistance.
There are two types of gelatine dynamites
Straight-gelatin dynamite: contains NG, NC and sodium nitrate with other dopes as the only explosive ingredients.
Cohesive and highly water-resistant explosives are used for blasting very hard tough rock
Ammonia-gelatin dynamite: contains NG, NC and amonium nitrate with other dopes as the only explosive ingredients.
These dynamites have high density, high energy, high VOD and good water resistance

59. Packaging and storage Dynamites are packed in cylindrical cartridges
Various paper shells or wrappers are used to package dynamite and protect it from moisture.
The weight, coating and type of wrapper have a great influence on the production of fumes, water resistance and ease of loading.
Storage
Dynamite begins to deteriorate when ammonium or sodium nitrate are dissolved by moisture and leaks out of the cartridges.
In dynamites where NG is not gelled with NC free NG may occur when the product is dissolved by moisture.
In this case dynamite should be destroyed in the approved manner by an experienced person. According national rules the manufacturer or distributor of explosive may pick-up deteriorated materials and dispose of them.
For this reason storage and rotation of stock must be carefully supervised.

60. Dynamite properties
Liquid NG freezes at 13 oC. To prevent freezing all modern dynamites contain nitroglycol which lower the freezing point down to -25 oC
Dynamite explosives have in general higher densities and higher detonation velocities than blasting agents.
Dynamites are recommended for hard rocks blasting and in wet boreholes.
NG is poisonous and creates headache

61. Dynamite properties Almost all dynamite explosives are cap sensitive.
Therefore they are used as a booster in rock blasting applications.
Density of dynamite is in the range 1,35 – 1.45 g/cm3
Detonation velocity is in range m/s
Toxic fumes are are present. Care should be taken when used under ground.
However, users should ensure that adequate ventilation is provided prior to re-entry into the blast area.
NG produces headaches.
Permissible dynamites are designed to minimize the probability of a gas or dust explosion in underground coal mine operations.

62. ANFO Mixture of ammonium nitrate (AN-94%) and fuel oil (FO-6%).
Ammonium nitrate used in ANFO should have a porosity sufficient to absorb and sustain the 6 % fuel.
Ammonium nitrate for agricultural use have little porosity and therefor less suited for ANFO
ANFO cannot be used in water-filled boreholes because of the high solubility of AN in water. A plastic hose must be used to avoid contact with water.
Water readily dissolves AN prills, leading to desensitization.

63. ANFO
ANFO is often transported to to the blasting site by ANFO trucks. These trucks have separate silos and tanks for the AN prill and fuel oil. These are mixed as they are conveyed into the borehole by augers. It can also be handled in bulk using bags of 25 kg or bigger.
Low packing density in boreholes (the pour density is about 0,8 g/cm3, the density when jet–loaded  by compressed air may reach 0,9-1 g/cm3).
Depending on the AN particle size and method of packing, the maximum practical density of ANFO mixtures is about 1,10 g/cm3. At densities above 1,20 g/cm3 the sensitivity of ANFO rapidly decreases.
Theoretically , the smaller particle increases density and detonation velocity.

64. ANFO
ANFO should be initiated by using a booster/primer (cast high explosives compositions such as pentolite and composition B have proven to be effective as booster).
ANFO may be initiated by a blasting cap no 8. This is dependant on confinement and density.
The efficiency of the primer to initiate ANFO is improved when its diameter approaches the diameter of the borehole.
This is particularly valuable in boreholes up to 125 mm. In larger diameter there is no influence.

65. ANFO ‘s delivering
ANFO poured from bags is predominantly used in small diameter.

66. Truck to deliver ANFO on site
Bulk ANFO is transported directly from storage bins to the blast site in trucks designed to load the product (either mechanically or pneumatically) directly down the boreholes

67. ANFO in cylindrical cartridges
ANFO packaged in textile or cardboard tubes with tough plastic liners are used in wet boreholes over 150 mm in diameter. The water resistance of the product depends entirely on the integrity of the package.
Energy additives such as aluminium granules or TNT can increase the cartridge energy and overcome the lower powder factors resulting from not completely filling the cross-sectional area of the borehole.

68. Detonation characteristics of ANFO
Detonation velocity
Detonation velocity of ANFO depends on the borehole diameter and degree of confinement in which it is shot.
The detonation velocity is normal in the range 2500 – 4500 m/s. A detonation velocity of about 4500 m/s is achieved for diameter borehole up 300 mm.

69. Detonation characteristics of ANFO
Fumes
ANFO can produce undesirable quantities of toxic gases (CO and NOx).
When blast produces large volumes of reddish or orange-brown smoke, usually NOx, may indicate that the product lacked sufficient fuel oil. Wet holes also increase the production of NOx.

70. Detonation characteristics of ANFO
Reactivity with pyrites
Weathered products of pyrites can be detrimental to ANFO.
Self-sustaining reactions of weathered pyrites and ANFO have been observed. Such reactions can produce sufficient heat which may lead to premature detonation of the borehole.
ANFO mixed with special inhibitors are less likely to react and will reduce the risk of premature detonation.

71. Slurries/Watergels
Aqueous slurry explosive - consist of oxidizing salts and fuels dissolved or dispersed in a continuous liquid phase. The entire system is thickened and made water-resistant by the addition of gellants and cross-linking agents.
The oxidizing salts are usually selected from ammonium nitrate and sodium nitrate and calcium nitrate.
Aluminium, coal , ethylene glycol and oil are frequently employed as fuels.
The explosive may be sensitized by the addition of chemically bubbles, micro balloons, organic amines nitrate, esters of alcohols or fine aluminium.
The performance is similar to that of emulsions. Water resistance and safety are very good. Slurry explosives have lately been replaced by emulsions.

72. Basic preparation of WatergelAN
Oil
Water
Hot solution
o/w
emulsion
Class 5.1
Class 1.1
Gassing
Hot spots
Gum

73. Slurries/Watergels
They tend to be less toxic and are less hazardous than dynamite to manufacture, transport, and store.
They are also less expensive compared to conventional explosives.
They are frequently used as cartridge explosives because they are much easier to load into large casings. With watergel explosives, filling a bomb is merely a matter of pouring the material into the casing.
Traditionally explosives are ordinarily cast into the casing. This process is laborious and the charge may begin to shrink creating multiple voids. A final advantage of slurry is that it can be stored in non-explosive component form and sensitized into field-manufactured explosive as it is needed.

74. Slurries/Watergels
They tend to be less toxic and are less hazardous than dynamite to manufacture, transport, and store.
They are also less expensive compared to conventional explosives.
They are frequently used as cartridge explosives. A final advantage of slurry is that it can be stored and transported as a non explosive in which case it is sensitized when loaded into the bore holes by a specially designed bulk truck.

75. Slurries/Watergels
Slurries has a number of field advantages in addition to reduced chances of accidental detonation from impact, shock or burning
Control of borehole density and detonation velocity
Watergels density generally range from about 0,8 to about 1,45 g/cm3
Detonation velocity is in the range 4000 m/s – 5800 m/s.
Can be pumped or packaged
If watergel is intended for use as a high volume bulk product, it can be formulated on site and a cross-linker is added as the product is pumped into the hole.
If the watergel is intended to be used as a packaged product the chemical cross-linker is added at the time of production so that shortly after packaging the final product gelled structure is achieved. In this form the cartrige is sufficiently dimensionally stable to retain its essentially cylindrical shape in storage. This facilitates loading into holes with only slightly larger diameters than the waterge cartrigel.
In this form, the watergel explosives have shelf lives in excess of one year under most normal storage conditions.

76. Slurries/Watergels Slurries has a number of field advantages:
Water-resistance of watergels is generally very good
Excellent control of fragmentation
Minimized tendency for hole-to-hole propagation
Reduced smoke and toxic fumes
Elimination of NG headaches
Are formulated to be cap-sensitive for some applications and cap-insensitive for other applications
Sensitivity is affected by product temperature
Higher product temperatures increase sensitivity while lower product temperatures decrease sensitivity

77. Emulsion explosives
Emulsion explosives - mixture of two liquids that do not normally mix with one another, as one liquid is oil-based, and the other liquid is water-based. When the appropriate emulsifier is present and enough mechanical energy is exerted, the two phases can be forced to blend together.
Emulsion explosives are, therefore, prepared in the form of water-in-oil emulsions. The internal phase is composed of a solution of oxidizer salt suspended as microscopically fine droplets, which are surrounded by a continuous fuel phase.
Emulsion explosives have excellent water resistance since each AN/water droplet is surrounded by a thin film of oil which repels water.
The extremely small droplet size and the submicron thickness of the oil film gives a very large contact surface between the fuel and the oxidizer solution.

78. Basic preparation of emulsjonAN
Oil
Water
Hot solution
Emulsifier
Fuel
w/o
emulsion
Class 5.1
Class 1.1
Gassing
Hot spots

79. Microscopic photo ofEMULSJON
The solution is emulsified into small droplets of about 1m
  that does not crystallize. The droplets are protected against   water ingress by a film of oil.

80. Emulsion explosives
The emulsion matrix may not be reliable detonable at densities above 1,30 g/cm3.
To sensitise the emulsion matrix voids in the form of glass microballoons (GMB), perlite or gas bubbles should be dispersed in the matrix.
The addition of aluminium or ANFO to an emulsion explosive can be used to increase its energy. Aluminium does not significantly increase the sensitivity of emulsions, so a much coarser and less costly aluminium can be used rather than the high cost paint-grade aluminium used to attain sensitivity in some watergels.

81. Emulsion explosives
Theoretically, an addition of 5 % aluminium will increase the energy of the emulsion by approx. 25 – 35 %. 10% of aluminium increases the energy by approx. 40 – 60 %.

82. Emulsion explosives
Emulsion explosives normally contain no ingredient that is an explosive in itself.
Emulsion have a high degree of safety with regards to use and handling.
Emulsion explosive are often carried to the blasting site by combination trucks having separate tanks for the two ingredients.
As viscosity is almost constant in the range -20 oC to 30 oC it can be conveyed into the drillhole by pump. Emulsion explosives are also sold in cartridges.

83. Emulsion explosives
The sensitivity of the emulsions can be made to vary from that of a #8 strength detonator for a high explosive classification at -20 ºC to booster sensitivity for blasting agent products.
Generally, the lower the density of an emulsion explosive, the more sensitive it becomes.
The sensitivity and energy of an emulsion increase as the water content of the emulsion decrease.
Detonation velocity is very high and decrease when the charge diameter decrease or aluminium or AN prills are added, but remains relatively high when compared to most watergels.
Detonation velocity is in the range 4000 m/s – 5800 m/s.

84. Heavy ANFO Blends
Heavy ANFO Blends is a mixture of ANFO and emulsion explosive. The interstices between the ANFO grains are at least partly filled with emulsion explosive. The energy content per unit mass is higher than straight emulsions.
The term Heavy ANFO is normally defined when the percentage of emulsion is less than 50%, otherwise it is called Blend.
In some cases the emulsions is mixed with straight AN prills rather than ANFO, provided the emulsion contains enough oil to properly oxygen balance the final Heavy ANFO Blend.

85. Heavy ANFO Blends
Heavy ANFO Blends are typically not cap sensitive and are usually classed as Blasting Agents.
In comparison to the ANFO the Heavy ANFO Blends have the following advantages:
Higher energy
Higher density
Higher water resistance
Allow to load the drillhole with different energy in bottom and column charge.

86. Heavy ANFO Blends The three main purposes of Heavy ANFO Blends are to:
Increase the density of ANFO; hence increase energy in the borehole
Aluminium can be use to increase the energy
Heavy ANFO Blends density is in the range 1,05 – 1,30 g/cm3.
Provide water resistance to ANFO
Reduce mining costs.
The Heavy ANFO Blends can be either packaged in shot bags or bulk loaded.
If the borehole is wet the ratio of emulsion to ANFO is increased until the Heavy ANFO Blends can be pumped.

87. Heavy ANFO Blends
The heavy ANFO Blends are delivered by trucks. These trucks have separate compartments for ANFO and tanks for emulsion. The truck may also have a bin for aluminium if added energy is needed.

88. Heavy ANFO blends
The truck normally is capable of loading ANFO, Heavy ANFO and blends with different emulsion/AN ratio. Explosive blends give the user a wide range of explosive densities and energies which can be utilized to optimize blasting.
The final density of the blend in the borehole is controlled with chemical gassing, GMB or some other pa density controlling material. The truck are fitted with hose reels and pumps to deliver the blends.
When GMB are added to the original formulation, it must be handled, transported and stored as an explosive.
Heavy ANFO blends become essentially water proof when the interstitial spaces between the AN prills are filled with emulsion. These blends cannot be pumped, because they are two viscous.

89. Heavy ANFO blends Loading problems using delivery trucks
When the Heavy ANFO blend is loaded directly into the water the explosive will be negatively affected.
The mixing of the explosive with the water at the water interface is especially violent when the explosive free- falls for some distance down the hole before hitting the water. Some of the emulsion is washed off the prills which will dissolve.
Using of plastic sleeves can improve the loading of wet boreholes
The diameter of the sleeve should not be smaller than the borehole diameter.

90. Heavy ANFO blends Fumes from Heavy ANFO blends
The production of NOx increases with low confinement of the detonating explosive and with exposure of the explosive to water.
Normally one would expect that a higher velocity would represent better detonation reaction, hence less NOx.
Apparently the water has more of an effect on the blend than just lowering its velocity.

91. Heavy ANFO Blends
Explosive blends give the user a wide range of explosive densities and energies which can be utilized to optimise the drilling and blasting costs.
The detonation energy for a formulation can be calculated based on its ingredients or reactants, its products of detonation and their respective heats of formation. Q value can be related to the calculated Q for ANFO to give a “relative weight strength (RWS)” and “relative bulk strength (RBS)”:
Q – Heat of explosion
 - Density

92. PETN Appearance: White crystalline solid. Characteristics:
Density: 1,77 g/cm3
Detonation velocity: 8400 m/s
Shock sensitivity: medium
Friction sensitivity: medium
Non-phlegmatized PETN is stored and handled with approximately 10% water content.

93. PETN PETN mixtures: Applications:
PETN is used in a number of compositions. It is a major ingredient of the Semtex plastic explosive. It is also used as a component of pentolite, a 50/50 blend with TNT.
Applications:
It is mostly used in detonators, primers and detonating cord.

94. Boosters / Primers
An explosive booster acts as a bridge between the detonator and a low sensitivity (but typically high energy) explosive. It increases the explosive energy released by the detonator to a sufficient level to initiate the secondary explosive.
High-explosive boosters use normally one of the following secondary explosives: Tetryl, RDX, PETN, TNT or NG.
Examples

95. Cast boosters
Cast boosters are cap-sensitive explosives that typically contain the high explosives TNT as the casting material. Different molecular explosives are mixed into the melted TNT and impart additional energy and/or sensitivity to the booster:
Pentolite boosters: PETN and TNT
Composition B boosters: RDX and TNT
Torpex boosters: RDX, TNT and aluminium
Tetrytol: tetryl and TNT
Amatol/Sodatol boosters: Pentolite or Composition B that contain amounts of AN or SN
Cast boosters are more resistant to accidental detonation from impact, shock or friction than dynamite: Nerveless, they must be handled in the same safe manner as other explosives.

96. NG based boosters NG based boosters are still used in some countries..
The most commonly NG based boosters are ammonium nitrate gelatins, also called “extra gelatins”.
NG booster should be a gelled product to reduce or eliminate any deterioration in wet conditions and should be over 60 % strength to deliver sufficient detonation pressure.
NG boosters are normally delivered into plastic canisters and they resemble cast boosters.

97. Plasticized Boosters These boosters resemble small rubber tubes.
These cap-sensitive boosters are extruded mixtures of PETN and an elastomeric binder. The binder gives the unit an appearance and texture of rubber.
Plasticized boosters are used to initiate products in open and underground operations in borehole diameters up to 114 mm.
They have excellent water resistance and three to five year life at normal temperatures and working well in temperature range -40 ºC to 102 ºC.
Plasticized boosters have safety characteristics far superior to NG based products.

98. Boosters characteristics
Boosters have:
High density
High detonation velocity
High detonation pressure
High explosives energy
Long shelf life under proper storage conditions
Excellent water resistance
High safety in handling characteristics.

99. Explosives Engineering
4. Notified body / CE mark / norms and explosives characterisation

100. Notified body
Notified body - an independent body appointed by an agency within one of the European countries, usually governmental, as being capable of performing the duties of a notified body as defined by the directives. The primary role of a notified body is to provide services for conformity assessment about the products to trade.
Notified bodies for explosives for civil uses
List of all notified bodies in European Commission-Entreprise and Industry - (
NANDO (New Approach Notified and Designated Organisations)
Examples of notified bodies
Germany: Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin, Gruppe 2.1 "Produktbeschaffenheit, Grundsatzfragen"
United Kingdom: Health & Safety Executive
France: Ministère de l'écologie de l'énergie du développement durable et de la mer - Direction générale de la prévention des risques
Spain: Dirección General de Política Energética y Minas

101. CE mark
CE Mark - CE marking indicates that the product it is affixed to conforms to all relevant essential requirements and other applicable provisions that have been imposed upon it by means of European directives, and that the product has been subject to the appropriate conformity assessment procedure(s).
The essential requirements refer, among other things, to safety, public health and consumer protection.
CE mark is reached when the explosive pass the safety requirements.
All explosives for civil uses that are placed on the market within the European Union must carry a CE mark (Directive 93/15/EEC of 5 April 1993).

102. Explosives Engineering
5. Transportation and handling of explosives

103. Handling of commercial explosives
Explosives for civil uses can be transported to the user site:
In large tank-trucks and pumped directly into the boreholes;
As cartridges inside paper cardboard cases;
In bags.

104. Transportation of explosives
ADR - The European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR).
ADR classifies carried dangerous goods in 9 classes according to the potential risk. The explosives are classified as class 1.
ADR is revised and consolidated every two years.
Last version could be found in the website of UNECE or at national authorities responsible for the legislation of transport of dangerous goods.

105. Transportation of explosives
ADR provides the information about the classes of dangerous goods and UN number.
The UN number is a four-digit number that identify hazardous substances, and articles.
UN must be clearly displayed on vehicles and containers.
The UN numbers range from UN0001 to about UN3500

106. Labels used for transport of explosives
Mass explosion hazard
Blast/Projection Hazard
Minor Blast Hazard
Major fire hazard
Blasting agents
Extremely insensitive explosives

107. Explosives Engineering
6. Explosives selection criteria

108. Selection of the type of explosive
Local conditions
Environmental problems
Vibration
Air blast
Fly rocks
Atmospheric conditions
Temperature
Rocks characteristics
Presence of water
Volume of rock to blast
Resistance of massive rocks
High fissured rocks
Porous rock
Explosive characteristics
Fumes
Cap sensitivity
Transportation and handling
Cost
Detonation velocity
Critical diameter

109. Explosive train
The explosive train is the sequence of energy transfer from relatively low levels to higher levels to initiate the final explosive material or main charge.
There are low and high-explosive trains:
Low-explosive trains are as simple as a rifle cartridge, including a primer and a propellant charge..
High-explosives trains can be more complex, either two-step (e.g., detonator and dynamite) or three-step (e.g., detonator, booster/primer, and main charge of secondary explosive).

110. Explosives Engineering
7.Disposal of explosives waste

111. Disposal of explosives waste
Disposal methods:
Burning
Detonation
Dissolution or dilution by a solvent
Others methods
Safety procedures
Legislation

112. Detonation
Where small quantities of wastes or slightly deteriorated explosives are involved, it may be feasible to incorporate them in a routine blast.
The waste explosive are normally loaded into the shot hole last to minimise any effects on the performance of the blast.
Subject to local legislation

113. References ISEE - Blasters’ Handbook, 17th edition, 1998.
Per-Anders Persson, Roger Holmberg, Jaimin Lee - Rock Blasting and Explosives Engineering, CRC Press, 1994.
Paul Cooper, Stanley Kurowski – Introduction to the Technology of Explosives, VCH, 1996.
Paul Cooper – Explosives Engineering, VCH, 1996.