1. Review for Exam 1

2. Agenda
Review the 9 ethical theories/frameworks.

3. Morality and Ethics
What is the difference?

4. Ethical Frameworks Different ways of studying what is moral.
Ethical frameworks should be based on reason
Because otherwise, we cannot debate them and agree on some course of action
Problem with this approach is that we leave out other moral considerations that may not be rational, but nevertheless reflect how people realistically think and behave.

5. Common Wisdom Doesn’t work for many new scenarios
Conceptual muddles leading to…
Policy vacuums

6. A good ethical theory should enable you to make a persuasive, logical argument to a diverse audience.

7. Subjective Relativism
Mother Teresa and Hitler both, according to themselves, lived good lives. Both right?
What about if we add the clause “I can decide what’s right for me, as long as my actions don’t hurt anybody else.” ?
Not subjective relativism any more, as it depends on a consensus about who is harmed, and how much
Cultural Relativism
Reason less important than tradition

8. Divine Command Theory
Based on obedience and not reason

9. Ethical Egoism
Here is a true story related by James Rachels [14]. An affluent doctor in a small Southern town in the 1970s was visited by a poor, uneducated African American woman, who had a variety of minor complaints. The doctor quickly determined that the woman was suffering from malnutrition. He knew that she worked a variety of menial jobs, but earned very little money to support herself or her children. After spending no more than five minutes with her, and doing nothing for her, the doctor told her the charge would be $25. The woman had only $12 to her name, so the doctor took the $12 as payment, leaving the woman with no money to buy food. There were no negative consequences to the doctor as a result of his action. According to the theory of ethical egoism, the doctor did the right thing: he was only supposed to take his own interest into account, and receiving $12 from the woman was to his advantage.
Moral or Immoral?

10. Kantianism Categorical Imperative (First Formulation)
Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws.

11. Act Utilitarianism Use to evaluate individual acts Pick currency
$, happiness, lives
Evaluate + and -

12. Rule Utilitarianism
Rule utilitarianism is the ethical theory that holds that we ought to adopt those moral rules that, if followed by everyone, lead to the greatest increase in total happiness over all affected parties.

13. Differences between Kantian Rule and Utilitarian Rule
The two seem similar because both give strict rules for moral behavior, but in essence they differ.
Kantianism
Rule based on morality as an end in itself.
Motivations used to judge rule’s goodness
Rule utilitarianism
Rule based on fruits of actions.
Rule’s effect in raising happiness used to judge rule’s goodness.

14. Differences between Kantian Rule and Utilitarian Rule -- 1
The two seem similar because both give strict rules for moral behavior, but in essence they differ.
Kantianism
Rule based on morality as an end in itself.
Motivations used to judge rule’s goodness
Rule utilitarianism
Rule based on fruits of actions.
Rule’s effect in raising happiness used to judge rule’s goodness.

15. Differences between Kantian Rule and Utilitarian Rule -- 2
Kant states that together we are all responsible for the conditions that are necessary for supplying everyone in what they need for living their (moral) lives.
The rule-utilitarian believes that together we are all responsible for everyone’s happiness.

16. Differences between Kantian Rule and Utilitarian Rule -- 3
A formulation of the categorical imperative that Kant names is that you must always treat people as ends, never as means.
Utilitarianism puts everything in the service of the greater happiness, through which humanity automatically becomes a means.

17. Example
People should be forced to abort foetuses if they already have two kids.
OK by utilitarianism, if economy is considered as currency
Not OK by Kantianism, as many consider abortion to be morally wrong.

18. Social Contract Theory
“Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well.”
Rawl’s principle of justice.

19. Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes argues that everybody living in a civilized society has implicitly agreed to two things:
the establishment of such a set of moral rules to govern relations among citizens, and
a government capable of enforcing these rules.
He calls this arrangement the social contract.

20. Social Contract Theory & Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism theorizes that the best way for different societies to function together at peace is for them to recognize that each culture must be allowed its own system of beliefs.
The only way to resolve the matter peaceably, as cultural relativism acknowledges, is for societies to recognize their differences without attempting to force their beliefs upon one another.

21. Social Contract Theory & Cultural Relativism
Social contract theory says morality consists in those rules that rational people ought to recognize are in everyone's best benefit if they are universally obeyed
New contracts can be constructed if the old ones become obsolete.
In cultural relativism, just have to accept that another culture is just as right, with no room for change or persuasion.

22. Virtue Ethics
Two kinds of virtues: intellectual virtues and moral virtues.
Intellectual virtues are those virtues associated with reasoning and truth.
Moral virtues, often called virtues of character by today’s writers, are habits or dispositions formed through the repetition of the relevant virtuous actions.
moral virtue is not simply a disposition to act in a particular way, it is also a disposition to feel in a particular way.

23. Virtue Ethics
A right action is an action that a virtuous person, acting in character, would do in the same circumstances.
A virtuous person is a person who possesses and lives out the virtues.
The virtues are those character traits human beings need in order to flourish and be truly happy.