1. Syntagms and Paradigms
Media Studies – Week
Syntagms and Paradigms

2. Syntagms
A syntagm is a chain of words ordered sequentially e.g a sentence (x i.e horizontal axis). ‘The cat sat on the mat’.
The categories from which we make choices when filling the designated places in the sentence pattern, can be called paradigms (y i.e. vertical axis). Paradigms i.e groups of words with a similar or related meaning, may be thought of as ‘storage shelves’ where one finds and takes out the words one needs to fill certain places in the syntagms. ‘The mouse sat on the mat.’
Parasynonyms: semi-identical meaning e.g ‘warm’, ‘hot’, ‘boiling’.
Antonyms: Opposite meaning e.g. hot/cold, light/dark.

3. Paradigms cont’d
According to French film semiotician, Christian Metz, ‘paradigms consist of a number of units that compete for the same place in the syntagmatic chain, and [..] any chosen unit (word, picture, sound etc.) gets its meaning through a comparison with those that could have appeared in the same place (Metz, 1982, p. 180).

4. Examples of paradigmatic-syntagmatic relationships
Menu in a French restaurant = a syntagm. Made up of starters, main courses, cheeses and desserts = syntagmatic code. Syntagmatic chain made up of paradigms e.g starters.
Clothing. There are paradigms for headwear, upper- and lower-body garments, socks and shoes. ‘Wearing knickers as a hat will be a breach of a paradigmatic code – and also of a syntagmatic one. For there are syntagmatic codes for combinations: a tuxedo coat does not fit with jogging trousers. It is a breach of the code as is slalom boots worn with a ballroom dress. Such breaches of codes can of course be done, not least in order to draw attention. They may therefore be successfully used in humour or advertising.’ (Gillespie and Toynbee (eds) Analysing Media Texts, Maidenhead, Open University Press, 2006, p.25)
Film = syntagm. Choice of lighting or choice of camera angle = paradigm. Clip: Edward Scissorhands ( Tim Burton, USA, 1990)

5. Commutation Test
Example: substitute one film star for another in a role in order to see what values and meanings are associated with each star.

6. So....we all interpret continuously
‘A key point about the features of representational codes, from words in language to the iconic signs of photojournalism, is that they become naturalized. Van Zoonen argues: ‘ semiotic analysis can be seen as a formalization of the interpretative activities human beings perform incessantly (1994, p. 77)’ (Taylor and Willis p. 22).

7. Semiotics and Ideology
‘It is because connotation is so saturated with meaning that Barthes argued that it is always ideological, expressing what he called the ‘myth’ of society. In so doing, the connotative meaning of signs is often attempting to make culturally constructed societal power relations of, for example, class and gender, seem natural, universal and inevitable. By logical extension Barthes’s argument about connotation, myth and ideology can also be applied to the images that the media directly trade in: it is through connotative meanings that the media, at certain moments, communicate ideologically.’ (Taylor and Willis, 22).

8. Van Zoonen’s working steps for semiotic analysis (Taylor and Willis p
1. Identify relevant signs and their dominant aspects (what kind of signifier/is the sign iconic/symbolic/indexical)
2. One continues with examining the paradigmatic combination of these signs, for instance by asking what their absent opposites are, and how they relate to each other syntagmatically.  
→ ‘One thus arrives at an understanding of the different processes of signification at work within the text: denotation, connotation, myth and ideology.’
Viewing: Pleasantville (Gary Ross, USA, 1998)

9. Conclusions
+ ‘Semiotic analysis is a powerful tool to understand how sign systems in mass media can evoke emotions, associations, fears, hopes, fantasies and acquiescence.’
+ Semiotic and Content analysis can show how often particular meanings re-occur in the media.  
- Problems with semiotic analysis as textual analysis – fails to take account of the audience/spectator/reader.
- Textual analysis must be accompanied by an examination of audience response in order to be properly understood.