1. 4
are you free?
Freedom and Determinism

2. Who controls your life? The puppet, created for the Tbilisi Marionette Theatre, is controlled by forces hidden from public view. In this chapter, you will explore whether this metaphor is applicable to your life and the choices you make.
Who controls your life? The puppet, created for the Tbilisi Marionette Theatre, is controlled by forces hidden from public view. In this chapter, you will explore whether this metaphor is applicable to your life and the choices you make.
ArenaPal/Topham/The Image Works

3. Learning Objectives
4.1 Discuss the question "Are you the master of your fate?" 4.2 Explain the determinist view of human freedom.

4. Learning Objectives
4.3 Define compatibilism, the view that attempts to find a common ground between "hard" determinism and indeterminism (or libertarianism). 4.4 Explain the distinctions between indeterminism and libertarianism.

5. Learning Objectives
4.5 Discuss feminists' philosophies of freedom. 4.6 Analyze the connection between neuroscience and free will.

6. Chapter Overview
Refer to the video titled Freedom and Determinism, at for an overview of the concepts presented in this chapter.
Click here in presentation mode to view a video on freedom and determinism.

7. Whether we are free is a philosophical (and psychological) question that requires thoughtful reflection and rigorous analysis.
Are we able to make authentically free choices, or are our actions determined by factors beyond our control?
Given exactly the same conditions or circumstances, could we have chosen otherwise than we did?
Are we responsible for the choices we make and their outcomes, or should we be excused from responsibility?
We will explore these central issues in this chapter.
As with most philosophical explorations, we will soon see that the questions—and potential answers—are a great deal more complex than the simple conclusion "We're free" or "We're not free."

8. 4.1 Are You the Master of Your Fate?
Determinism
Human nature
The environment
Psychological forces
Social dynamics
Compatibilism
Indeterminism
Libertarianism
Some people believe that genuine freedom of choice is not always possible because our decisions and actions are determined by factors beyond our control.
This view is known as determinism, and, at its most extreme form, "hard determinism."
Hard determinists believe that every behavior can be traced to a cause, although they may disagree about what those causes are.
Here are some popular explanations of human behavior that exemplify the determinist view:
Human nature
"People are born with certain basic instincts that influence and determine how they behave."
The environment
"People are shaped by their environment, conditioned by their experiences to be the kind of people they are."
Psychological forces
"People are governed by psychological forces, many of them unconscious, that cause them to think, feel, and act in certain ways."
Social dynamics
"People are social creatures who are greatly influenced by the people around them."
An alternative version of determinism is called compatibilism, which is the view that all events, including human actions, are caused. This view has also been referred to as soft determinism.
Compatibilists agree with hard determinists that all events, including human actions, are caused.
However, compatibilists assert that we can consider human actions "free" if they are the result of internal motivations, not the product of external influences or constraints.
These thinkers agree with the determinists that all human behavior is caused by previous events; however, compatibilists contend that we can still distinguish between actions that are compelled by external constraints and actions that are not.
Actions that are externally compelled—for example, as the result of threats—are unfree.
In contrast, actions that are not compelled by external factors are free.
Freedom means the opposite of compulsion.
People are free if they are not prevented from acting on their unimpeded natural desires, even though these natural desires may be causally determined by factors in their personal history.
Indeterminism is the view that some events, including human actions, are not necessarily determined by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws.
Libertarianism is the view that humans are able to make authentically free choices that are not determined by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws, that there is a meaningful sense that though we made one choice, we "could have done otherwise."
Indeterminism is the position that at least some of our actions are not determined, leaving open the possibility that these undetermined actions are random.
The indeterminist need not admit the existence of free will, whereas this is precisely what the libertarian is committed to.

9. Review the table, Views of Free Will, which discusses hard determinism, compatibilism, and indeterminism and libertarianism.

10. Have students complete the Thinking Philosophically exercise: What Are Your Assumptions About Freedom?

11. Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d’Holbach (1723–1789) This French philosopher and translator played a major role in the Enlightenment as a contributor to the Encylopedie, a compendium of progressive ideas and knowledge. He published his own radical writings anonymously, and his System of Nature and Common Sense were publicly condemned and burned. [Paul Henri Thiry (1723–1789) Baron d’Holbach, 1766 [wic on paper] by Carmontelle (Louis Carrogis) (1717–1806)].
Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (1723‑1789). This French philosopher and translator played a major role in the Enlightenment as a contributor to the Encylopedie, a compendium of progressive ideas and knowledge. He published his own radical writings anonymously, and his System of Nature and Common Sense were publicly condemned and burned.
Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library

12. 4.2 Determinism Determinist view of personal freedom John Stuart Mill
Baron d'Holbach, The System of Nature
Analyzing Baron d'Holbach on the illusion of freedom
Those who take a determinist view of personal freedom use these generally accepted areas of causal determinism as a framework for understanding the mainsprings of human action.
Their reasoning can be summarized thus:
Events in the physical universe consistently display well-defined causal connections.
There are scientific exceptions to this precise causal determinism at subatomic levels, but it is a scientific perspective generally accepted for the rest of the universe.
Events in the biological realm also consistently display causal connections, though as we saw in the last chapter, the complex and intimate relationship between the mind and body makes this a much more complicated situation.
Because humans are a part of the physical universe and the biological realm, it is reasonable to assume that all of our actions (and the choices that initiated the actions) are also causally determined, eliminating the possibility of free choice.
John Stuart Mill ( ) was a British philosopher known for his writing on utilitarianism, the view that we should act to promote the greatest amount of happiness and create the least amount of suffering possible for the greatest number of people.
He summarized the determinist position in his "On Causation and Necessity."
Refer to the passage in the student text.
Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach
Presented one of the most compelling and entertaining defenses of determinism
Refer to the Document Scroll Widget: Baron d'Holbach, from The System of Nature.
Motives and the Determination of the Will
Absence of Restraint is Not Absence of Necessity
The Complexity of Human Conduct and the Illusion of Free Agency
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Analyzing Baron d'Holbach on the Illusion of Freedom.

13. Have students complete the Thinking Philosophically exercise: Do You Choose Freely?

14. British philosopher W. T. Stace.
Walter Sanders/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images

15. Moritz Schlick (1882–1936) A founder of the Vienna Circle, Schlick—who had a PhD in physics—was interested in creating a theory of knowledge based on direct observation and logic.
Moritz Schlick (1882‑1936). A founder of the Vienna Circle, Schlick, who had a PhD in physics, was interested in creating a theory of knowledge based on direct observation and logic.  
UPPA/Photoshot

16. 4.3 Compatibilism Compatibilism
Attempts to find a common ground between "hard" determinism and indeterminism
External constraints may limit freedom.
W. T. Stace
Religion and the Modern Mind
Human actions are entirety determined by causes, both actions which are "free" and those which are "unfree."
Some thinkers have modified the determinist position, arguing that free choice is possible even as they endorse the general deterministic assumption that "all events and human actions are brought about by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws."
Because the goal of this approach is to find a common ground between "hard" determinism and indeterminism (or libertarianism), it has been given the name "compatibilism" by its supporters and the somewhat less complimentary "soft determinism" by its detractors.
We will begin our exploration of compatibilism by examining the supporting arguments presented by the British philosophers David Hume and W. T. Stace, and the American philosopher R. E. Hobart (the pseudonym for Dickinson S. Miller).
Compatibilists like W. T. Stace, R. E. Hobart, David Hume, and Daniel Dennett assert that we can consider human actions "free" if they are the result of internal motivations, not the product of external influences or constraints.
In his book, Religion and the Modern Mind, Stace explains that although he is a determinist in the tradition of d'Holbach, he nevertheless wants to establish the existence of free will and personal responsibility within this deterministic framework.
He believes that preserving the reality of free will and personal responsibility is crucial in order to preserve the reality of morality.
Otherwise, if free will is indeed an illusion, then it makes no sense to encourage people to make enlightened moral choices nor to hold them morally responsible when they fail to.
If freedom and responsibility are illusions, morality isn't the only core element of human life that is in jeopardy.
So also are the many aspects of human endeavor that are based on the belief that we can choose freely and be held responsible for our choices, including:
The fairness of the criminal justice system
Enlightened child-rearing and education
Religion and the quest for spiritual enlightenment
The pursuit of self-improvement
The goal of creating a better world
The countless ways in our daily lives that we assume that people can make free choices and be held responsible for those choices.
Furthermore, Stace doesn't think hard determinists, even the most vocal like d'Holbach, actually believe the philosophical theory they have constructed.
Stace believes that while hard determinists are committed to determinism on a theoretical level, on a personal level they are just as strongly committed to a belief in the possibility of personal freedom and responsibility.
The challenge for Stace and other compatibilists is to show that a belief in "hard determinism" is not the death knell of personal freedom and responsibility and that in fact they can both exist in a harmonious unity provided they are correctly understood.
In his influential article "Free Will as Involving Determination and Inconceivable Without It," the philosopher R. E. Hobart gives a forceful announcement of this compatibilist goal.
Refer to the excerpt in the student text.
Compatibilists believe the apparent conflict between determinism and freedom can be traced to a confusion in language use, and Stace provides a number of unique examples to illustrate his point.
Examine the examples presented in the student text. Stace then subjects these examples to a comparative analysis using what he terms the "ordinary usage" of the concepts of "free choice" and "responsibility" as his guide.
Compatibilists believe that the choices we make are necessarily determined by previous events in our life, and that if we knew enough about each person's personal history, we would be able to predict with 100 percent certainty exactly what they would do.
As the events of the world unfold, there is only one possible scenario for these events because they are all necessarily related and determined in a universal causal web.
According to compatibilists, if we examine the "free" and the "unfree" examples discussed, the difference between them is not that the unfree actions are caused and the free actions uncaused. Instead, as Stace explains, the actions in both categories are necessarily caused by previous events.
The difference between "free" actions and "unfree actions" is that free actions are caused by an individual's personal history and motivations, while unfree actions are caused by forces outside of the individual: being lost in the desert or being beaten by the police.
According to Stace, the only intelligent view is that all human actions are entirely determined by causes, both actions which are "free" and those which are "unfree."
Free acts are all caused by the unimpeded internal motivations of the individual, while unfree acts are caused by compulsions or constraints imposed on the individual.

17. 4.3 Compatibilism External constraints may limit freedom. R. E. Hobart
Wish-will-act
Free actions
Unfree actions
The meaning of "power"
Free choices
Unfree choices
Some thinkers have modified the determinist position, arguing that free choice is possible even as they endorse the general deterministic assumption that "all events and human actions are brought about by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws."
R. E. Hobart analyzes the compatibilist concept of freedom on a somewhat deeper level by explaining that all human actions embody the necessary causal law connecting wish-will-act.
Free actions occur when this universal causal law is permitted to operate without interference.
Your wish for something translates into willing, which becomes acting.
Unfree actions occur when this necessary causal process is interfered with by outside factors of restraint or constraint.
Freedom
Free will means freedom of persons in willing.
Can
We say, "I can will this or I can will that, whichever I choose." 
What is the meaning of "power?"
A person has the power to produce a certain event and that event will actually follow.
Power depends upon, or rather consists in, a law.
The law in question takes the familiar form that if something happens, a certain something else will ensue.
For Stace, and Hobart and other compatibilists, free choices are those that are not compelled by forces or circumstances external to the individual, while unfree choices are those that are compelled. In both cases the actions are causally determined.
What distinguishes free choices from unfree choices is the nature of the causal factors.
This approach is similar to the distinction that d'Holbach makes when analyzing the case of Socrates.

18. 4.3 Compatibilism External constraints may limit freedom.
David Hume
An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
Response of hard determinists and libertarians to the compatibilist definition of free choices
Internal constraints may also limit freedom.
Schlick
Some thinkers have modified the determinist position, arguing that free choice is possible even as they endorse the general deterministic assumption that "all events and human actions are brought about by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws."
Many philosophers trace the origin of the compatibilist view to David Hume, an influential Scottish thinker who asserted that "the self,"—as a coherent identity that exists over time—does not exist or, at least, that its existence cannot be proven.
As a precursor to Stace, Hume also believed that the alleged controversy between "determinism" (which he calls necessity) and "indeterminism" (which he calls liberty) is at its essence no more than the product of verbal confusion.
In his seminal work, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, he explains in his own distinctive way.
Like d'Holbach and Stace, Hume grounds his position on the fundamental belief that all actions are the necessary result of the motives and desires that are responsible for bringing them about.
Further, he contends, this "constant and regular conjunction" between motives and actions is a commonly accepted conviction that most people assume without question.
Within this deterministic framework, the only meaningful freedom is the ability to act on the basis of our unimpeded desires.
Our freedom is limited or denied only when external circumstances constrain us—like being incarcerated.
All human actions follow necessarily from the motives and desires, which constitute our mental life and who we are.
As long as we are not prevented from doing what we wish by external constraints or influences, then it can be said our actions are "free."
Every choice that we make, every action that we take, happens because it "has" to happen—it could not be otherwise.
That doesn't mean that we don't entertain the belief that our "will" is somehow independent from and unaffected by other influences such as motives and desires.
It is just that this belief in the autonomy of our "will" is an illusion.
How do hard determinists and libertarians respond to the compatibilist definition of free choices as those choices that are not compelled externally and instead fully reflect our natural desires?
From the standpoint of the hard determinists, the compatibilist "solution" is unlikely to have much of an impact.
As we noted, d'Holbach already acknowledges the distinction between external constraints and internal constraints, and he considers them both to be equally determined and equally unfree.
The libertarians have traditionally been even less sympathetic to the compatibilist efforts.
William James who coined the term soft determinism.
An analogous disdain for compatibilism's efforts to reconcile the causal necessity of "hard" determinism with the possibility of freedom advocated by indeterminism was articulated a century earlier by Immanuel Kant. For Kant, "true" freedom exists in only one form, as "transcendental freedom."
It is not only hard determinists and libertarians who have problems with the traditional version of the compatibilist analysis of freedom as articulated by Stace.
Even some other compatibilists consider it to be a somewhat oversimplified analysis in need of clarification.
One such philosopher is Moritz Schlick.
Schlick believed that we must also consider "internal constraints" as well as "external constraints" when determining whether an action is freely chosen.
Schlick agrees with mainstream compatibilists that freedom means the opposite of compulsion.
Schlick agrees that the consciousness of freedom is the knowledge of having acted on one's own desires.
However, Schlick contends, the feeling of freedom does not say that under exactly the same inner and outer condition we could have willed something else.
As a result, Schlick's views in this regard accord with determinism, which holds that all human actions are brought about by previous events in accordance with universal causal laws.
Freedom means "acting in accord with one's unimpeded rational desires."
Where Schlick's views diverge from Stace's and other compatibilists is in his recognition that there are times when internal constraints in the form of mental illness or even neuroses can act as a disturbing factor that hinders the normal functioning of our natural tendencies.
In such cases, we hold the illness responsible, not the individual.
Thus, Schlick believes, we need to amend the compatibilist definition of free choice to include not just the absence of external constraints but also the absence of serious and debilitating internal constraints.
To say that an action is genuinely free is to say that it is the expression of a person's unimpeded rational desires.
This insight seems to suggest that we can actually increase our freedom, not only by removing external constraints but by removing or diminishing internal constraints as well.
This line of thinking suggests that there may be degrees of freedom, and that it may be in our self-interest to increase to the optimal level the degree of freedom of which we are capable.

19. Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948). A political and spiritual leader, Gandhi helped India achieve independence through nonviolent civil protest and disobedience. What were the facts in his background that influenced his decisions? Were these choices free?
Mahatma Gandhi (1869‑1948). A political and spiritual leader, Gandhi helped India achieve independence through nonviolent civil protest and disobedience. What were the facts in his background that influenced his decisions? Were these choices free?
Bettmann/Corbis

20. Daniel C. Dennett (b. 1942) The research of this American philosopher centers on the philosophy of mind, particularly as it relates to evolutionary biology and cognitive science.
Daniel C. Dennett (b. 1942). The research of this American philosopher centers on the philosophy of mind, particularly as it relates to evolutionary biology and cognitive science.
ZUMA Press/Newscom

21. 4.3 Compatibilism Free will is a human creation.
Dennett
Freedom Evolves
Evaluating compatibilism
Compatibilism is vibrantly alive today in the work of such individuals as Daniel C. Dennett.
Dennett is a materialist who believes that humans are at essence evolved organisms lacking a spiritual self or immortal soul, the mind nothing more than the workings of the brain, created through the natural selection by the "blind watchmaker" of evolution.
As a result, Dennett is committed to determinism in the sense that "there is at any instant exactly one physically possible future."
Dennett also believes that "human freedom is not an illusion; it is an objective phenomenon, distinct from all other biological conditions and found in only one species, us."
Because human freedom is real, he believes that it can be studied and understood objectively from a scientific point of view.
Thus, Dennett is seeking to achieve the same "compatibility" between determinism and freedom that other thinkers have but within the context of evolutionary theory and modern research into the relationship between the brain and the mind.
The goals of Dennett's undertaking are described in his book, Freedom Evolves.
Refer to the excerpt in the student text.
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Evaluating Compatibilism.

22. William James (1842–1910) An American thinker whose work blends science, psychology, and philosophy. James was one of the founders of Pragmatism, a school of philosophy that connects questions of meaning and truth to practical applications and consequences. Among his writings is The Principles of Psychology (1890), a 1,200-page work that introduced the concept of “stream of thought.”
William James (1842‑1910). An American thinker whose work blends science, psychology, and philosophy. James was one of the founders of Pragmatism, a school of philosophy that connects questions of meaning and truth to practical applications and consequences. Among his writings is The Principles of Psychology (1890), a 1,200-page work that introduced the concept of "stream of thought."
Science Source

23. 4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism
William James, The Will to Believe
We live in a world of possibilities.
Self improvement
Morality
Religion
Social improvement
Indeterminism holds that your choices, or at least some of your choices, are made (or can be made) freely.
In other words, whichever option you choose, you might still have chosen otherwise.
Some philosophers make a distinction between "indeterminism" and "libertarianism."
The indeterminist need not admit the existence of free will, whereas this is precisely what the libertarian is committed to.
In the selections presented in the text, taken from The Will to Believe, James mounts a strong offensive for believing in the reality of human freedom.
Our belief in free choice and personal responsibility infuses our beliefs in self-improvement, morality, religion, social improvement, crime and punishment, and countless other dimensions of our private and public lives.
Self improvement
We try to improve ourselves and the quality of our lives, which depends on believing that we possess the freedom to make different choices from those we have previously made.
Morality
As a society, we develop moral ideals, rewards, and punishments to help people live together in a harmonious and productive fashion.
But if people's actions are caused by genes or uncontrolled impulses, then there is little point in trying to develop an ethical world.
Religion
Most religions require that individuals have the ability to choose freely in determining their spiritual destiny. In the absence of freedom, religion becomes irrelevant.
Social improvement
Many people want to create a better world, free from poverty, crime, discrimination, and other destructive forces, but to do so requires the ability to change the past and present
Without it, there is no point in trying to solve social problems.
Refer to the Document Scroll Widget: William James, from The Will to Believe.
William James argued that indeterminism was the more rational belief about human freedom, as most aspects of the way we live our lives assume that we all have some degree of freedom of choice.
James bolstered his argument by pointing out that, in a deterministic universe, neither judgments of approval nor judgments of regret are possible.
Determinism leads to a radical pessimism that simply does not explain lived human experience.

24. 4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism
Ways of viewing the universe
A universe of actualities
A universe of possibilities
Psychological, astrological, sociological, and economic theories
Analyzing James on free will
In reviewing the traditional positions of determinism and indeterminism, James casts the debate in a fresh light that helps to clarify the underlying issues.
There are two ways of viewing the universe.
A universe of actualities, in which no other possibilities exist other than those that occur.
If the events of the universe were a story, there is one way and one way only that this story could ever be told.
This is the determinist view.
A universe of possibilities, in which no matter what events have occurred in the past, there are still multiple possibilities in the future.
This is the indeterminist view.
Many theories confidently proclaim explanations of events after they have taken place, including:
Psychological theories
"Unconscious impulses made you . . ."
Astrological theories
"The position of the planets shaped your personality . . ."
Sociological theories
"Social forces molded you into the person you are . . ."
Economic theories
"Economic forces account for your current income level . . ."
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Analyzing James on Free Will.

25. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) Sartre was a French philosopher and founder of Existentialism, a school of thought based on the idea that “existence precedes essence.” His Being and Nothingness (1943) offers a full exploration of this view. Sartre also wrote literary criticism, plays, and novels and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954 (which he declined).
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905‑1980). Sartre was a French philosopher and founder of Existentialism, a school of thought based on the idea that "existence precedes essence." His Being and Nothingness (1943) offers a full exploration of this view. Sartre also wrote literary criticism, plays, and novels and was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954 (which he declined).
Science Source

26. 4.4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism
Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism
We create ourselves through our choices.
Existentialism
Analyzing Sartre on freedom, choice, and responsibility
Sartre was a French philosopher and founder of Existentialism.
Existentialism is a philosophical and literary movement that focuses on the uniqueness of each human individual as distinguished from abstract universal human qualities.
The movement was defined by Sartre as "existence precedes essence," meaning that humans create themselves through free choices and are responsible for who they are.
Refer to the Document Scroll Widget: Jean-Paul Sartre, from Existentialism Is a Humanism.
Jean-Paul Sartre argues that we are, in fact, radically free, "condemned to be free."
In arguing against the view that "essence precedes existence"—that our choices, our selves, and our actions exist in some cosmic, predetermined realm before we were even born—Sartre posits instead that "existence precedes essence."
We are oriented toward the future, continually weighing options and considering our choices; that faculty of consideration and choosing is what makes us truly free, in Sartre's view.
As a result, however, we are each uniquely and completely responsible for the actions we choose to take.
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Analyzing Sartre on Freedom, Choice, and Responsibility.

27. 4.5 A Feminist Analysis of Freedom
Feminist philosophers
Marilyn Frye
Sandra Bartky
Feminist philosophers have explored the complexities of freedom in some depth, particularly with respect to the ways in which external and internal constraints work together to limit the possibility of genuine freedom for women.
Marilyn Frye (b. 1941) is a feminist philosopher and currently a professor at Michigan State University.
Her interests include the philosophy of language and feminist philosophy.
She authored The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory.
Frye argues that external and internal constraints work together to limit the possibility of genuine freedom for women.
One of the central concepts feminists use when discussing freedom is oppression, which Frye describes as a system of interrelated barriers embodied in social institutions and norms, which limit freedom of a certain group and effect their subordination to another group.
Sandra Bartky (b. 1935), is Professor Emeritus of philosophy and gender studies at the University of Illinois at Chicago.
Her main research areas have been feminism and phenomenology.
Her notable contributions to the field of feminist philosophy include the article, "The Phenomenology of Feminist Consciousness."
Bartky holds the view that psychological oppression is more effective at maintaining the status quo than economic or political oppression.
Forms of oppression that are best understood as external constraints to freedom
In her text, Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression, she argues that the negative messages and beliefs about an oppressed group that can lead to psychological oppression are produced, dispersed, and reaffirmed by social institutions such as the family, church, school, and government.
In this regard, psychological oppression is just as institutionalized and systematic as economic or political oppression.
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Understanding Oppression.

28. How can social images and roles like the “Happy Housewife” restrict people’s freedom? Many feminists believe that the freedom of women has been constrained by the coercive forces of social conditioning and psychological manipulation.
How can social images and roles like the "Happy Housewife" restrict people's freedom? Many feminists believe that the freedom of women has been constrained by the coercive forces of social conditioning and psychological manipulation.
George Marks/Getty Images

29. 4.6 Neuroscience and Free Will
Advancements in neuroscience
Physicalism
Francis Crick
Patricia Churchland
Alva Noë
Do advancements in neuroscience—the scientific study of how the brain operates—represent the death of free will?
Many neuroscientists are convinced that the answer to this question is an emphatic "Yes!"
Physicalism is the view that all mental states are identical with, reducible to, or explainable in terms of physical brain states.
As a result, many physicalists like Francis Crick and Patricia Churchland believe that this fact eliminates the possibility of free will.
From Crick's view, our conscious lives—the fact that we think, and feel, and engage in a world—is accomplished in us by the action of our brain.
The brain produces images of the world and manipulates, calculates, makes inferences, and other operations through a process known as "thought," which then leads to action through neural commands.
From this conceptual perspective, we really are our brains, and our bodies are the robotic tools at our brains' disposal.
In the words of Patricia Churchland, a prominent philosopher of neuroscience, "The weight of evidence now implies that it is the brain rather than some non-physical stuff, that feels, thinks, decides."
Other philosophers and neuroscientists believe that we need to take a broader view of consciousness.
Alva Noë believes that consciousness should be seen as the achievement of the whole person in its environment, requiring the joint operation of brain, body, and world.
Have students complete the Reading Critically activity: Neuroscience and Free Will.

30. Making Connections: Creating a Synthesis
Overcoming limitations to your Freedom
Confronting external constraints
Confronting internal constraints
Is personal freedom a reality or an illusion?
Are you capable of making genuinely free choices, or are your choices influenced and determined by causal factors woven into your personal history?
Perhaps the most enlightened view is one that recognizes that the question is not either/or
Rather than people being completely free or completely unfree, perhaps there are degrees of freedom and nonfreedom.
By developing your self-awareness you can increase your freedom.
The first step in increasing your freedom is to become aware of the existence of constraints.
If you are limited by external forces, the way to free yourself is to neutralize or remove them, so that you can make choices that reflect your genuine desires.
"No man is free who is a slave to himself."
This saying captures the insight that, although you may believe that you are making a free choice because you are not the victim of visible external constraints, your choice may indeed be unfree.
How is this possible?
Because your choice can be the result of internal constraints, irrational impulses that enslave you.
You can choose to let these historical influences continue to control your personality, or you can choose to move beyond these historical influences, to choose a different path for yourself that transcends their influence and liberates your future.

31. Have students complete the Thinking Philosophically exercise: What Are the Limitations to Your Freedom?