Electrical Principles Chapter 1

Electrical Principles Chapter 1
Matter, Atoms, Conductors, Insulators, SemiConductors, Elements, Molecules, Compounds, and Electron Flow

Matter

Matter What is Matter? Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter can exist in a state of gas, liquid, or solid.

Matter A Solid is a state of matter that has a definite shape and volume. A Liquid is a state of matter that a definite volume but not a definite shape. A Gas is a state of matter that is fluid, has a relatively low density, and is highly compressible.

Matter All Matter has electrical properties.
Electrical Behavior of matter varies according to the physical makeup of the matter. Some Matter allows electricity to flow through it more easily. This type of Matter is called a Conductor. Examples: Copper

Matter A Conductor is a material that has very little resistance and allows electricity to flow easily through it. Material that does not allow electricity to flow easily is called an Insulator. An Insulator is a material that has very high resistance and restricts the flow of electricity. Example: Glass, Rubber, Plastic, Paper

Questions!?!?!?!?!

Atoms The word Atom is a Greek word meaning a particle that is too small to subdivide. Neils Bohr, A Danish Physicist, Put forward a theory in 1913 about the atom and the subatomic particles that make up the atom. This model is still in use today. Bohr’s atomic structure model combines the ideas of Planck, Rutherford, and Einstein.

Atoms An Atom is the smallest particle that an element can be reduced to and still maintain the properties of that element. Three principal parts of the Atom are: Electron Neutron Proton

Atoms An Electron is a negatively charged particle in an Atom.
A Neutron is a neutral particle, with a mass approximately the same as a proton, that exists in the nucleus of an Atom. A Proton is a particle with a positive electrical charge of 1 Unit that exists in the nucleus of the Atom.

Atoms The electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom.
The neutron and proton combine to form the nucleus. The Atomic Number of an Atom describes the number of protons that exist within the nucleus.

Atoms The number of neutrons within an atom’s nucleus can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number (protons) from the atomic weight (combined protons and neutrons).

Atoms Example – Beryllium has an Atomic Number of 4 (Protons) and an Atomic Weight of 9 (Protons and Neutrons). Subtracting the beryllium atoms weight (9) from the Atomic Number (4), we can determine the number of neutrons to be 5.

Atoms A Neutral Atom or Balanced Atom is an atom that has an equal number of protons and orbiting electrons, so the net positive proton charge is equal but opposite to the net negative electron charge, resulting in a balanced or neutral state.

Atoms Orbiting electrons travel around the nucleus at varying distances from the nucleus and these orbital paths are known as shells or bands. The orbital shell nearest the nucleus is referred to as the first or K shell. The second is known as the L shell, the third is M, the fourth is N, the fifth is O, the sixth is P, and the seventh is the Q shell. The outer most electron occupied shell is known as the Valence Shell or Ring and electrons in this shell are termed Valence Electrons.

Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges
Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges Like charges repel one another. (Like Charges are positive and positive or negative and negative). Unlike Charges attract one another. (Unlike Charges are positive and negative or negative and positive).

Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges Positively charged particles attracts a negatively charged particle Positively charged particles repels against another positively charged particle. Negatively charged particles repel another negatively charged particle.

Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or
Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges

Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges Orbiting negative electrons are attracted toward the positive nucleus. Orbiting electrons remain in a stable orbit due to two equal but opposite forces. The centrifugal outward force exerted on the electrons due to the orbit counteracts the attractive force trying to pull the electrons toward the nucleus due to the unlike charges.

Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges Due to the distance from the nucleus, valence electrons are described as being loosely bound to the atom. These electrons can easily be dislodged from their outer orbital shell by any external force, to become a Free Electron.

Atoms Laws of Attraction and Repulsion or Law of Charges The gaining or losing of electrons produces and electric charge in the atom. All charges particles exert forces on one another, even if they are not in physical contact. The exerted force is due to the electric field that surrounds all charged particles.

Valence Electrons A Valence Shell is the outermost shell of an atom and contains the electrons that form new compounds. Example – two hydrogen atoms combine with the electrons in the outer shell of an oxygen atom to form water (H2O). The electrons in the Valence Shell are important because they can be used to produce an electric current flow. The number of electrons in the Valence Shell determines whether the material is a Conductor, SemiConductor, or Insulator.

Questions!?!?!?!?!

Conductors, Insulators and SemiConductors

A Conductor is a material that has very little resistance and allows electricity to flow easily through it. Conductors have three or less valence electrons. Electricity is flowing through the electrons of the outer most Valence Shell into the electrons of the adjoining atom’s Valence Shell outer most electrons.

Material that does not allow electricity to flow easily is called an Insulator. An Insulator is a material that has very high resistance and restricts the flow of electricity. Example: Glass, Rubber, Plastic, Paper Insulators have five or more valence electrons.

A SemiConductor is an electronic device that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor (high conductivity) and that of an insulator (low conductivity). SemiConductors, such as carbon, germanium, and silicon, are made from materials that have exactly four valence electrons. SemiConductor materials do not conduct electricity easily and are not good insulators.

Questions!?!?!?!?!

Elements, Molecules and Compounds

An atom is the smallest unit of a natural element, or an element is a substance consisting of a large number of the same atom. Combinations of elements are known as Compounds and the smallest unit of a compound is called a Molecule. Water is an example of a liquid compound in which the Molecule (H2O) is a combination of an explosive gas (hydrogen) and a very vital gas (oxygen).

Elements are the basic materials that make up all matter. An Element is a substance that can not be chemically broken down and contains atoms of only one variety. All solids, liquids, and gases are made up of Elements. Some matter may be made up of only one Element, but most matter is made up of more than one Element. There are 109 Elements, 92 of which are natural. Millions of Compounds can be made by combining different Elements.

When elements are combined, the properties of the compound may differ considerably from that of the individual elements. Electrical properties of compounds are important in water treatment, gas and oil refining, food processing, chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing, medical applications, and research. Low voltage electricity is passed through the compounds and used to take measurements that provide information about the product being tested.

Electron Flow

Electron Flow Two theories – Conventional Current Flow and Electron Current Flow. Conventional Current – current flows from positive to negative. Conventional Current Flow is used in electrical field and by electrical engineers to aid in explanation electrical circuit properties.

Electron Flow Electron Current Flow – current flows from negative to positive. Electron Current Flow is used in electronic semiconductor field to assist in explaining the operation of solid-state electronic components.

Questions!?!?!?!?!

Energy, Voltage, Voltage Types, AC/DC, Current, Power, Restrictive Circuits, Inductive Circuits, Resistance, Heat, and Light

Energy

Energy Energy – Is the capacity to do work. There are two types of Energy – Potential and Kinetic. Potential Energy – Stored Energy. Example: Battery. Kinetic Energy – Energy in motion. Kinetic Energy is released Potential Energy. Example: Battery operated electric motor.

Energy Consumed Energy : Sources of Energy that once used can not be replaced. Example: Coal, Oil, Fossil Fuels. Renewable Energy : Solar, Wind, Water, Thermal Sources, Wood.

Voltage

Voltage Voltage: Is the amount of electrical pressure in a circuit.
Voltage is measured in Volts (V). Voltage is also known as ElectroMotive Force (EMF) or Potential Difference. Pressure

Voltage Voltage is produced any time there is an excess of electrons at one terminal of a Voltage source and a deficiency of electrons at the other terminal. Voltage may be produced by electromagnetism (generators), chemicals (batteries), light (photocells or solar cells), heat (thermocouples – Nuclear power), pressure (pizioelectricity – electronic drum pads), or friction (static electricity).

Voltage Amount of Voltage in a circuit depends on the application. Example: IPODs require one or two batteries. Two types of Voltage – Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC). Alternating Current (AC) – Voltage that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals (Two steps forward – One step back). Most common type of voltage.

Voltage Direct Current (DC) – Flows in one direction depending upon Polarity of circuit. All points in a DC circuit has Polarity. Polarity – Is the positive (+) or negative (-) state of an object. Rectifier : AC current can be changed to DC current by passing the AC current through a Rectifier. Example: Power Chargers for Cell Phones are AC/DC Rectifiers.

Current

Current Current (I) flows through a circuit when a source of power is connected to a device that uses electricity. Current (I) is the amount of electrons flowing through an electrical circuit. Current (I) is measured in Amperes (A). Current

Current An Ampere is the number of electrons passing a given point in one second. The more power a load requires, the larger the amount of Current flow. Current may be direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Two types of Current Flow – Conventional Current Flow and Electron Current Flow.

Current Conventional Current Flow is current flow from the positive (+) to negative (-). Electron Current Flow is current flow from the negative (-) to positive (+).

Power Power (P) is the rate of doing work or using energy.
Power may be expressed as True Power (PT ) or Apparent Power (PA). True Power (PT ) is the actual power used in an electrical circuit. Apparent Power (PA) is the product of the voltage and current in a circuit calculated without considering the phase shift that may be present between the voltage and the current in the circuit.

Power True Power is expressed in Watts (W). PT = W
Apparent Power is expressed in Volt Amps (VA). PA=VA. PT is always less than PA in any circuit in which there is a phase shift between voltage and current.

Power Phase Shift is the state when voltage and current in a circuit do not reach their maximum amplitude and zero level at the same time.

Power Restrictive Circuit is a circuit that contains only resistance.
In-phase is the state when voltage and current reach their maximum amplitude and zero level at the same time.

Power Inductance is the property of an electric device that opposes a change in current due to its inability to store energy in a magnetic field. Inductive Circuit is a circuit in which current lags voltage. Capacitance is the ability to store energy in the form of an electrical charge.

Power Capacitive Circuit is a circuit in which current leads voltage. The greater the Capacitance in a circuit, the larger the phase shift. Power Factor is the ratio of true power used in an AC circuit to apparent power delivered to the circuit.

Power Resistance (R) is the opposition to current flow. Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ώ). Resistance limits the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Conductors are made of materials that have very little resistance and permits electrons to move through it easily.

Power Insulators are made of a material that has a very high resistance and resists the flow of electrons. Heat is thermal energy. Electrical energy may be converted to heat. British Thermal Units (BTU) or Calories are used to measure heat.

Power One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. One Calorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1gram of water 1 degree celcius.

Power Thermal Conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat in the form of thermal energy. Heat Sink is a device that conducts and dissipates heat away from a component. HEAT kills electronics. Light is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which produces radian energy. Lumen (lm) is the unit used to measure the total amount of light produced by a light source.

QUESTIONS!?!?!?!?!?!?!?

Resistance, Power, Coulombs, Ohm’s Law, Power Formula, Power – Current Relationships, Impedance, Multimeters, Calculating-Measuring Energy and Power

Resistance and Ohm’s

Resistance and Ohm’s Resistance is the opposition to current flow by the dissipation of heat. The Resistor is a device that is included within electrical and electronic circuits to oppose current flow by introducing a certain value of circuit Resistance. Resistance is measured in Ohms and is represented by the Geek letter Omega, the symbol for Omega is Ώ.

Resistance and Ohm’s The larger the resistance, the larger the value of Ohms and the more the resistor will oppose current flow. As the resistance in the circuit is increased the current will decrease and, conversely, as the resistance of the resistor is decreased the circuit current will increase.

Ohm’s Law In 1827 George Ohm proved there was a direct relationship between Voltage (E), Current (I), and Resistance (R) in an electrical circuit. This relationship is known as Ohm’s Law. Ohm’s Law states that current in a circuit is proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance.

E I R Ohm’s Law E = Voltage - Volts I = Current - Amps
R = Resistance or Reactance (Impedence) - Ohms Direction: Cover what you want and perform the mathematical process with what’s left over. Example: Cover E = I X R

Ohm’s Law Voltage/Current Relationship. Ohm’s Law states that if the resistance in a circuit remains constant, a change in current is directly proportional to a change in voltage. Example: A heat shrink sealing gun connected to a variable power supply.

Ohm’s Law Current/Resistance Relationship. Ohm’s Law states that if the voltage in a circuit remains constant, a change in resistance produces an inversely proportional change in current. The current in a circuit decreases with an increase in resistance, and the current in the circuit increases with a decrease in resistance. Example: The dimmer/brightness switch for lights inside a car.

Ohm’s Law In engineering applications, Ohm’s Law is used to solve for the proper values of voltage, current, or resistance during circuit design and to predict circuit characteristics before power is applied to a circuit when two of the three electrical values are know.

Ohm’s Law In troubleshooting applications, Ohm’s Law is used to determine how a circuit should operate and how it is operating under power. Resistance measurements can not be taken when a circuit is under load (power). Current and Voltage can be taken when a circuit is under load (power).

Power Transforming energy from one form to another is called work. The greater the energy transformed, the more work that is done. There are six basic forms of energy and they are light, heat, magnetic, chemical, electrical, and mechanical energy. The unit for measuring work is called the Joule (J).

Power Power (P) is the rate at which work is performed and is measured by the unit called Watt (W). Watts = Joules per second. The output Power, or power ratings of electrical, electronic or mechanical devices can be expressed in Watts (W) and describes the number of Joules of energy converted every second.

Power The output of Power of rotating machines is given in the unit horsepower (hp). The output of Power of heaters is given in the unit British Thermal Units per hour (BTU/h) The output of Power of cooling units is given in the unit Ton of Refrigeration.

Power Despite the different names, all can be expressed in the unit of Watts (W) by using the following conversions: 1 hp = 746 W 1 BTU/h = W 1 ton of refrigeration = 3520 W The amount of energy stored (W) is dependent on the coulombs of charge stored (Q) and the voltage (V) and can be expressed mathematically W = Q x V.

Power Power is the rate at which electric energy (W) is converted to some other form and can be expressed mathematically as P = I x V. This formula states that the amount of power delivered to a device is dependent on the electrical pressure (or voltage applied across the device) and the current flowing through the device.

Power Formula The Power Formula is the relationship between Power (P), Voltage (E), and Current (I). P E I P = Power -Watts E = Voltage - Volts I = Current - Amps Direction: Cover what you want and perform the mathematical process with what’s left over. Example: Cover E = I X R

Power Formula The Power Formula states that if the voltage in a circuit changes, the current in the circuit also changes. The power required from a circuit changes any time loads are added (power increases) or removed (power decreases). The Power Formula is used when troubleshooting and to predict circuit characteristics before power is applied.

Combining Ohm’s Law and Power Formula
Ohm’s Law and the Power Formula may be combined mathematically and written as any combination of Voltage (E), Current (I), Resistance (R), or Power (P). Ohm’s Law and the Power Formula are limited to circuits in which electrical resistance is the only significant opposition to the flow of current. This limitation includes all DC circuits and AC circuits that do no contain a significant amount of inductance and/or capacitance – which we will learn about later.

Combining Ohm’s Law and Power Formula

Review Ohm’s Law states that current in a circuit is proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. The Power Formula states that if the voltage in a circuit changes, the current in the circuit also changes. The power required from a circuit changes any time loads are added (power increases) or removed (power decreases).

Questions!?!?!?!?!?!?!

Electrical Principals Chapter 4
Conductors, Conductance, Insulators, Resistivity, Temperature on Conductors, Resistors, Resistor Types, Resistor Values, Variable Resistors, Capacitors, Diodes, Transistors, Digital Logic Gates,

Conductors, Temperature Effects on Conductors, and Insulators

Conductors A Conductor is a material that has very little resistance and permits electrons to move through it easily. Conductors include wire, cable, and cord. Electrical circuits and components are connected using Conductors.

Conductors Conductor material include copper, aluminum, copper-clad aluminum, steel, and bronze. Copper and Aluminum are the most commonly used materials. Copper is most common. Copper is preferred because it has a lower resistance than aluminum for any given wire size.

Conductors Conductance is the measure of how good a conductor is at carrying current. Conductance is inversely proportional to resistance. A good Conductor has a high Conductance value and a very small resistance to current flow.

Conductors Conductors are not meant to offer any resistance or opposition to current flow. Conductance is the measure of how good a Conductor is, and even the best Conductors have some value of resistance. We can calculate a Conductor’s resistance with the formula R=V/I

Temperature Effects on Conductors
When heat is applied to a Conductor, the atoms within the Conductor convert this thermal energy into mechanical energy or movement. These random moving atoms cause collisions between the directed electrons (current flow) and the adjacent atoms, resulting in an opposition to current flow (resistance).

Temperature Effects on Conductors
This means the greater the heat applied to the conductor (more current flowing), the greater the atom movement, causing more collisions of atoms to occur and consequently, greater conductor resistance. More current more heat. More heat more resistance.

Insulators Insulators is any material that offers high resistance or opposition to current flow. Remember Conductors permit the easy flow of current. Insulators can, with sufficient pressure or voltage applied across them, “break down” and conduct current.

Resistors, Resistance, and Resistivity

Resistivity Resistivity is the resistance (in Ohms) that a certain length of conductive material (in feet) will offer to the flow of current.

Electrical Resistance is opposition to the flow of electrons through any material. A Resistor is a device that limits the current flowing in an electronic circuit. Resistors are classified by their resistance value (in Ώ) and their power dissipation (in Watts).

Resistors are used for dividing voltage, reducing voltage, developing heat, and limiting current. Resistors may be fixed, variable or tapped. A Fixed Resistor is a Resistor with a set value, such as 100Ώ.

A Variable (adjustable) Resistor is a resistor with a set range of values, such as 0Ώ to 1000Ώ. A Tapped Resistor is a resistor that contains fixed tap points of different resistances. A Thermistor is a device that changes resistance with a change in temperature. Thermistors are semiconductor devices.

There are two types of Thermistors – positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and the negative temperature coefficient (NTC). A PTC Thermistor has an increasing resistance value with an increase in temperature. A NTC Thermistor has a decreasing resistance value with an increasing in temperature. The NTC Thermistor is the most common type.

Capacitance, Capacitors, Diodes and Transistors

Capacitance, Capacitors, and Diodes
Capacitance is the ability to store energy in the form of an electrical charge. Capacitance is the property of an electric device that permits the storage of electrically separated charges when potential differences exist between the conductors.

A Capacitor is an electric device designed to store electrical energy by means of an electrostatic field. Capacitors are used as filters in AC circuits to block DC voltages in electronic circuits, and to improve torque in motors.

Capacitors include fixed, variable, and electrolytic polarized. Once Capacitors are discharged, the must be recharged. Tolerance of some Capacitors is indicated by a letter code following the number.

A Diode is a semiconductor device that offers very high opposition to current flow in one direction and very low opposition to current flow in in the opposite direction. Diodes are also know as Rectifiers because they change AC into pulsating DC.

Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current capacity. The most common types of diodes include zener, tunnel, photoconductive, and light-emitting diodes (LED). Diodes are a available in current ranges of a few milliamps to over 1000A.

A Zener Diode is a silicon PN junction that differs from a standard diode in that it operates in the reverse breakdown region. A Zener Diode operates as a voltage regulator in an electronic circuit. Zener Diodes allow varying amounts of reverse current flow through them and continue to maintain a relatively constant voltage drop when reverse biased.

A Tunnel Diode is a diode designed so that the current flowing through the diode decreases with an increase in applied voltage for a specific range of forward voltage. Tunnel Diodes operate as an amplifier or oscillator in an electronic circuit. Tunnel Diodes exhibit negative resistance when operated within a specific range of forward voltage. Tunnel Diodes are used in logic circuits and for level sensing.

A Photoconductive Diode is a diode that conducts current when energized by light. Photoconductive Diodes decrease resistance as light increases. The Diode is made of photosensitive material that decreases in resistance with an increase in light.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a Diode that emits light when forward current is applied. In an LED is produced when current is passed through the diode. LEDs are commonly used as visual indicators because they have a very long life.

Transistors A Transistor is a three-terminal device that controls current through the device depending on the amount of voltage applied to the base. Transistors are made of semiconductor material. Transistors are used to start and stop (switch) current flow or to increase (amplify) current flow in DC circuits.

Transistors Transistors can be NPN or PNP, Unijunction, and Junction Field-Effect Transistors (JFET), and Phototransistors. An NPN Transistor is a transistor that is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of P-type material between two layers of N-type material.

Transistors An PNP Transistor is a transistor that is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of N-type material between two layers of P-type material. NPN and PNP transistors function as a switch. They start, stop, or increase the flow of current in a DC circuit. Transistors also function as amplifiers in allowing a very small current to control a much larger current.

Transistors A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a transistor consisting of N-type material with a region of P-type material doped within the N-type material. A UJT is used in timer circuits. A Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET) is a device in which output current is controlled by the voltage on the input.

Transistors A Phototransistor is a transistor that controls the amount of current flowing through the emitter/base junction based on the amount of light. Phototransistors include NPN and PNP transistors. There is an increase of current flow with an increase in light. A Phototransistor is a combination of a Photodiode and a Transistor.

Transistors

Digital Logic Gates

Digital Logic Gates A Digital Logic Gate is a circuit that performs a special logic operation such as AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, and exclusive OR. Digital Logic Gates are used in most electronic devices. Digital circuits operation on binary signals. Binary signals have two states – the signal is high (1) or low (0) … on (1) or off (0).

Digital Logic Gates

QUESTIONS!?!?!?!?!?!?!?

Electrical Principals Chapter 5
Switches, Fuses, Ground, Receptacles, Basic Circuit Conditions

Switches

Switches A Switch is a device that is used to start, stop, or redirect the flow of electricity in an electrical circuit. A Switch must be rated higher than (or equal to) the voltage and current the Switch is controlling. There are three manual types of Switches used to control the ON/OFF current flow in a circuit and they are two-way, three-way, and four-way switches.

Switches Two-Way Switch is a single-pole, single-throw (SPST).
A Two-Way Switch has two positions and they are ON and OFF A Two-Way Switch is used to control a circuit from one location.

Switches Three-Way Switch is a single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch. A Three-Way Switch does not have an ON – OFF position. A Three-Way Switch is used to control a circuit from two different locations.

Switches A Four-Way Switch is s double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch. A Four-Way Switch changes the electrical connections inside the switch from straight to diagonal. A Four-Way Switch does not have ON – OFF positions. A Four-Way Switch is used with Three-Way switches to control a circuit from three different locatrions.

Switches

Fuses A Fuse is an equipment protection device that consists of a thin wire link within a casing. All Fuses have a current rating and this indicates what value of current will generate enough heat to open the Fuse. When the circuit current exceeds the rating of the fuse, the fuse opens (wire link melts) and prevents current from flowing in that part of the circuit.

Fuses Fuses come in a variety shapes, sizes,
Fuses are very low resistance devices connected in series with the circuit’s conductors. Fuses for DC current are different from Fuses used in AC circuits. Fuses ARE NOT Interchangeable between AC and DC circuits.

Fuses Fuses also have a voltage rating that indicates the maximum circuit voltage that can be applied across the Fuses by the circuit in which the Fuses resides. This voltage rating, which is important after the fuse has blown, prevents arcing across the blown fuse contacts. Once the fuse has blown, the circuits positive and negative voltages are now connected across the fuse contacts.

Fuses If the voltage is too great, an arc can jump across the gap, causing a sudden surge of current, damaging the connected equipment. Fuses are mounted with Fuses holders and normally are placed at the back of the equipment for easy access. When replacing Fuses ensure the power to the equipment is turned OFF before replacing a blown Fuses.

Ground

Ground Ground is a term used to identify zero potential. All potentials are either positive or negative with respect to ground. Ground, in electricity, is an electrical conductor that is connected to Earth to complete a circuit. In electrical equipment, such as household appliances, the ground conducts electric current that may build up in the appliance because of a "leak" or a short circuit. There are two types of Grounds: Earth and Electrical.

Ground In homes, offices, and buildings or AC circuits, all electrical circuits and appliances are earth grounded. In automobiles, the chassis becomes the ground for all circuits. The ground serves as part of the complete circuit. In electronics, electrical ground serves a different purpose: Ground is defined as the zero reference point against which all voltages are measured.

Receptacles

Basic Circuit Conditions

Electrical Principles Chapter 1

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