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Video: Microtubules Anaphase

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1 Video: Microtubules Anaphase
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

2 Video: Nuclear Envelope
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

3 G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase 10 m Centrosomes
Figure 9.7-1 10 m G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Chromosomes (duplicated, uncondensed) Early mitotic spindle Centromere Fragments of nuclear envelope Nonkinetochore microtubules Aster Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 1: G2 of interphase through prometaphase) Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Two sister chromatids of one chromosome Kinetochore Kinetochore microtubules © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

4 Telophase and Cytokinesis
Figure 9.7-2 10 m Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Metaphase plate Cleavage furrow Nucleolus forming Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 2: metaphase through cytokinesis) Nuclear envelope forming Spindle Centrosome at one spindle pole Daughter chromosomes © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

5 G2 of Interphase Prophase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs)
Figure 9.7-3 G2 of Interphase Prophase Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Chromosomes (duplicated, uncondensed) Early mitotic spindle Centromere Aster Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 3: G2 of interphase and prophase) Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Plasma membrane Two sister chromatids of one chromosome © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

6 Prometaphase Metaphase Fragments of nuclear envelope Nonkinetochore
Figure 9.7-4 Prometaphase Metaphase Fragments of nuclear envelope Nonkinetochore microtubules Metaphase plate Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 4: prometaphase and metaphase) Kinetochore Kinetochore microtubules Spindle Centrosome at one spindle pole © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

7 Telophase and Cytokinesis
Figure 9.7-5 Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis Cleavage furrow Nucleolus forming Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 5: anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis) Nuclear envelope forming Daughter chromosomes © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

8 G2 of Interphase 10 m Figure 9.7-6
Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 6: G2 of interphase micrograph) 10 m G2 of Interphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

9 Figure 9.7-7 Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 7: prophase micrograph) 10 m Prophase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

10 Prometaphase 10 m Figure 9.7-8
Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 8: prometaphase micrograph) 10 m Prometaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

11 Figure 9.7-9 Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 9: metaphase micrograph) 10 m Metaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

12 Figure Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 10: anaphase micrograph) 10 m Anaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

13 Telophase and Cytokinesis
Figure Figure Exploring mitosis in an animal cell (part 11: telophase and cytokinesis micrograph) 10 m Telophase and Cytokinesis © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

14 The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
The mitotic spindle is a structure made of microtubules and associated proteins It controls chromosome movement during mitosis In animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, a type of microtubule organizing center © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 14

15 The centrosome replicates during interphase, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during prophase and prometaphase An aster (radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 15

16 During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes Kinetochores are protein complexes that assemble on sections of DNA at centromeres At metaphase, the centromeres of all the chromosomes are at the metaphase plate, an imaginary structure at the midway point between the spindle’s two poles © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 16

17 Video: Mitosis Spindle
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

18 Aster Centrosome Sister chromatids Metaphase plate (imaginary) Kineto-
Figure 9.8 Aster Centrosome Sister chromatids Metaphase plate (imaginary) Kineto- chores Microtubules Chromosomes Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules Figure 9.8 The mitotic spindle at metaphase Kinetochore microtubules 1 m 0.5 m Centrosome © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

19 Microtubules Chromosomes 1 m Centrosome Figure 9.8-1
Figure The mitotic spindle at metaphase (part 1: TEM) 1 m Centrosome © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

20 Kinetochores Kinetochore microtubules 0.5 m Figure 9.8-2
Figure The mitotic spindle at metaphase (part 2: kinetochore TEM) 0.5 m © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

21 The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends
In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends Chromosomes are also “reeled in” by motor proteins at spindle poles, and microtubules depolymerize after they pass by the motor proteins © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 21

22 Experiment Results Conclusion Kinetochore Spindle pole Mark Chromosome
Figure 9.9 Experiment Results Kinetochore Spindle pole Conclusion Mark Chromosome movement Kinetochore Figure 9.9 Inquiry: At which end do kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase? Motor protein Tubulin subunits Microtubule Chromosome © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

23 Experiment Kinetochore Spindle pole Mark Figure 9.9-1
Figure Inquiry: At which end do kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase? (part 1: experiment) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

24 Results Conclusion Chromosome movement Kinetochore Motor Tubulin
Figure 9.9-2 Results Conclusion Chromosome movement Figure Inquiry: At which end do kinetochore microtubules shorten during anaphase? (part 2: results and conclusion) Kinetochore Motor protein Tubulin subunits Microtubule Chromosome © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

25 Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell At the end of anaphase, duplicate groups of chromosomes have arrived at opposite ends of the elongated parent cell Cytokinesis begins during anaphase or telophase, and the spindle eventually disassembles © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 25

26 Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 26

27 Animation: Cytokinesis
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

28 Video: Cytokinesis and Myosin
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

29 (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)
Figure 9.10 (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM) 100 m Vesicles forming cell plate Wall of parent cell 1 m Cleavage furrow Cell plate New cell wall Figure 9.10 Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells Daughter cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

30 100 m Cleavage furrow Figure 9.10-1
Figure Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells (part 1: cleavage of animal cell, SEM) 100 m Cleavage furrow © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

31 Vesicles Wall of forming parent cell 1 m cell plate Figure 9.10-2
Figure Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells (part 2: cell plate formation in plant cell, TEM) Vesicles forming cell plate Wall of parent cell 1 m © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

32 Chromosomes condensing Nucleus Nucleolus Chromosomes 10 m Prophase
Figure 9.11 Chromosomes condensing Nucleus Nucleolus Chromosomes 10 m Prophase Prometaphase Cell plate Figure 9.11 Mitosis in a plant cell Metaphase Anaphase Telophase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

33 Nucleus Chromosomes condensing Nucleolus 10 m Prophase Figure 9.11-1
Figure Mitosis in a plant cell (part 1: prophase) 10 m Prophase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

34 Chromosomes 10 m Prometaphase Figure 9.11-2
Figure Mitosis in a plant cell (part 2: prometaphase) 10 m Prometaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

35 Figure Figure Mitosis in a plant cell (part 3: metaphase) 10 m Metaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

36 Figure Figure Mitosis in a plant cell (part 4: anaphase) 10 m Anaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

37 Cell plate 10 m Telophase Figure 9.11-5
Figure Mitosis in a plant cell (part 5: telophase) 10 m Telophase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

38 Binary Fission in Bacteria
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission In E. coli, the single chromosome replicates, beginning at the origin of replication The two daughter chromosomes actively move apart while the cell elongates The plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell into two © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 38

39 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell
Figure 9.12-s1 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Figure 9.12-s1 Bacterial cell division by binary fission (step 1) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

40 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell
Figure 9.12-s2 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Origin Origin One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Figure 9.12-s2 Bacterial cell division by binary fission (step 2) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

41 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell
Figure 9.12-s3 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Origin Origin One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Figure 9.12-s3 Bacterial cell division by binary fission (step 3) Replication finishes. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

42 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell
Figure 9.12-s4 Origin of replication Cell wall Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Origin Origin One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Figure 9.12-s4 Bacterial cell division by binary fission (step 4) Replication finishes. Two daughter cells result. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

43 The Evolution of Mitosis
Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, mitosis probably evolved from binary fission Certain protists (dinoflagellates, diatoms, and some yeasts) exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 43

44 (b) Diatoms and some yeasts
Figure 9.13 Chromosomes Microtubules Intact nuclear envelope (a) Dinoflagellates Kinetochore microtubule Figure 9.13 Mechanisms of cell division Intact nuclear envelope (b) Diatoms and some yeasts © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

45 Concept 9.3: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell These differences result from regulation at the molecular level Cancer cells manage to escape the usual controls on the cell cycle © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 45

46 Evidence for Cytoplasmic Signals
The cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm Some evidence for this hypothesis comes from experiments with cultured mammalian cells Cells at different phases of the cell cycle were fused to form a single cell with two nuclei at different stages Cytoplasmic signals from one of the cells could cause the nucleus from the second cell to enter the “wrong” stage of the cell cycle © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 46

47 Conclusion Molecules present in the cytoplasm
Figure 9.14 Experiment Experiment 1 Experiment 2 S G1 M G1 Results S S M M Figure 9.14 Inquiry: Do molecular signals in the cytoplasm regulate the cell cycle? G1 nucleus immediately entered S phase and DNA was synthesized. G1 nucleus began mitosis without chromosome duplication. Conclusion Molecules present in the cytoplasm control the progression to S and M phases. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

48 Checkpoints of the Cell Cycle Control System
The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a timing device of a washing machine The cell cycle control system is regulated by both internal and external controls The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 48

49 G1 checkpoint Control system S G1 G2 M M checkpoint G2 checkpoint
Figure 9.15 G1 checkpoint Control system S G1 G2 M Figure 9.15 Mechanical analogy for the cell cycle control system M checkpoint G2 checkpoint © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

50 For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important
If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G2, and M phases and divide If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the G0 phase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 50

51 M checkpoint G2 checkpoint
Figure 9.16 G1 checkpoint G0 G1 G1 Without go-ahead signal, cell enters G0. With go-ahead signal, cell continues cell cycle. G1 S (a) G1 checkpoint M G2 G1 G1 M G2 M G2 M checkpoint Figure 9.16 Two important checkpoints G2 checkpoint Anaphase Prometaphase Metaphase Without full chromosome attachment, stop signal is received. With full chromosome attachment, go-ahead signal is received. (b) M checkpoint © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

52 G1 checkpoint G0 G1 G1 (a) G1 checkpoint Without go-ahead signal, cell
Figure G1 checkpoint G0 G1 G1 Figure Two important checkpoints (part 1: G1 checkpoint) Without go-ahead signal, cell enters G0. With go-ahead signal, cell continues cell cycle. (a) G1 checkpoint © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

53 M checkpoint G2 checkpoint
Figure G1 G1 M G2 M G2 M checkpoint G2 checkpoint Anaphase Figure Two important checkpoints (part 2: M checkpoint) Prometaphase Metaphase Without full chromosome attachment, stop signal is received. With full chromosome attachment, go-ahead signal is received. (b) M checkpoint © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

54 The cell cycle is regulated by a set of regulatory proteins and protein complexes including kinases and proteins called cyclins © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 54

55 An example of an internal signal occurs at the M phase checkpoint
In this case, anaphase does not begin if any kinetochores remain unattached to spindle microtubules Attachment of all of the kinetochores activates a regulatory complex, which then activates the enzyme separase Separase allows sister chromatids to separate, triggering the onset of anaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 55

56 Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 56

57 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small
Figure 9.17-s1 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small pieces. Petri dish Figure 9.17-s1 The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on cell division (step 1) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

58 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small
Figure 9.17-s2 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small pieces. Petri dish Enzymes digest the extracellular matrix, resulting in a suspension of free fibroblasts. Figure 9.17-s2 The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on cell division (step 2) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

59 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small
Figure 9.17-s3 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small pieces. Petri dish Enzymes digest the extracellular matrix, resulting in a suspension of free fibroblasts. Cells are transferred to culture vessels. Figure 9.17-s3 The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on cell division (step 3) Without PDGF © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

60 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small
Figure 9.17-s4 Scalpels A sample of human connective tissue is cut up into small pieces. Petri dish Enzymes digest the extracellular matrix, resulting in a suspension of free fibroblasts. Cells are transferred to culture vessels. Figure 9.17-s4 The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on cell division (step 4) PDGF is added to half the vessels. Without PDGF With PDGF Cultured fibroblasts (SEM) 10 m © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

61 Cultured fibroblasts (SEM) 10 m Figure 9.17-1
Figure The effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on cell division (SEM) 10 m © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

62 Another example of external signals is density-dependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 62

63 Anchorage dependence: cells require a surface for division
Figure 9.18 Anchorage dependence: cells require a surface for division Density-dependent inhibition: cells form a single layer Density-dependent inhibition: cells divide to fill a gap and then stop Figure 9.18 Density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence of cell division 20 m 20 m (a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

64 (a) Normal mammalian cells
Figure 20 m Figure Density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence of cell division (part 1: normal cells) (a) Normal mammalian cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

65 20 m (b) Cancer cells Figure 9.18-2
Figure Density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence of cell division (part 2: cancer cells) (b) Cancer cells © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

66 Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
Cancer cells do not respond to signals that normally regulate the cell cycle Cancer cells do not need growth factors to grow and divide They may make their own growth factor They may convey a growth factor’s signal without the presence of the growth factor They may have an abnormal cell cycle control system © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 66

67 A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation
Cancer cells that are not eliminated by the immune system form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and undergo metastasis, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 67

68 Breast cancer cell (colorized SEM) Metastatic tumor Lymph vessel Tumor
Figure 9.19 5 m Breast cancer cell (colorized SEM) Metastatic tumor Lymph vessel Tumor Blood vessel Figure 9.19 The growth and metastasis of a malignant breast tumor Glandular tissue Cancer cell A tumor grows from a single cancer cell. Cancer cells invade neighboring tissue. Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other parts of the body. A small percentage of cancer cells may metastasize to another part of the body. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

69 Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to
Figure Lymph vessel Tumor Blood vessel Cancer cell Glandular tissue A tumor grows from a single cancer cell. Cancer cells invade neighboring tissue. Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other parts of the body. Figure The growth and metastasis of a malignant breast tumor (part 1) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 1

70 Metastatic tumor Lymph vessel Blood vessel Cancer cell
Figure Metastatic tumor Lymph vessel Blood vessel Cancer cell Figure The growth and metastasis of a malignant breast tumor (part 2) Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to other parts of the body. A small percentage of cancer cells may metastasize to another part of the body. © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

71 5 m Breast cancer cell (colorized SEM) Figure 9.19-3
Figure The growth and metastasis of a malignant breast tumor (SEM) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

72 Recent advances in understanding the cell cycle and cell cycle signaling have led to advances in cancer treatment Medical treatments for cancer are becoming more “personalized” to an individual patient’s tumor © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd. 72

73 Amount of fluorescence per cell (fluorescence units)
Figure 9.UN01-1 Control Treated 200 A B C A B C 160 Number of cells 120 80 40 Figure 9.UN01-1 Skills exercise: interpreting histograms (part 1) 200 400 600 200 400 600 Amount of fluorescence per cell (fluorescence units) Data from K. K. Velpula et al., Regulation of glioblastoma progression by cord blood stem cells is mediated by downregulation of cyclin D1, PLoS ONE 6(3): e18017 (2011). doi: /journal.pone © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

74 Human glioblastoma cell Figure 9.UN01-2
Figure 9.UN01-2 Skills exercise: interpreting histograms (part 2) © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

75 Cytokinesis Mitosis MITOTIC (M) PHASE Telophase and Cytokinesis
Figure 9.UN02 I N T E R P H A S E G1 S Cytokinesis Mitosis G2 MITOTIC (M) PHASE Prophase Telophase and Cytokinesis Figure 9.UN02 Summary of key concepts: mitotic phase and interphase Prometaphase Anaphase Metaphase © 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

76 Figure 9.UN03 Test your understanding, question 7 (onion root tip)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

77 Figure 9.UN04 Test your understanding, question 11 (HeLa cancer cells)
© 2017 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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