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Characterizing and Classifying Prokaryotes
11 Characterizing and Classifying Prokaryotes
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General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms
Prokaryotes Most diverse group of cellular microbes Thrive in various habitats Only a few capable of colonizing humans and causing disease
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Figure 11.1 Typical prokaryotic morphologies.
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General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms
Endospores Produced by Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus and Clostridium Each vegetative cell transforms into one endospore Each endospore germinates to form one vegetative cell Defensive strategy against unfavorable conditions Concern to food processors, health care professionals, and governments
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Figure 11.2 Locations of endospores.
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General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms
Reproduction of Prokaryotic Cells All reproduce asexually Three main methods Binary fission (most common) Snapping division Budding
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Bacterial Growth: Overview
PLAY Bacterial Growth: Overview
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Cell replicates its DNA. Cytoplasmic membrane Nucleoid
Figure Binary fission. Cell wall 1 Cell replicates its DNA. Cytoplasmic membrane Nucleoid Replicated DNA 2 The cytoplasmic membrane elongates, separating DNA molecules. 3 Cross wall forms; membrane invaginates. 4 Cross wall forms completely. 5 Daughter cells may separate.
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Figure 11.4 Snapping division, a variation of binary fission.
Older, outer portion of cell wall Newer, inner portion of cell wall Rupture of older, outer wall Hinge
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Figure 11.5 Spores of actinomycetes.
Filamentous vegetative cells Spores
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Figure Budding.
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General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms
Reproduction of Prokaryotic Cells Epulopiscium and its relatives have unique method of reproduction Live offspring emerge from the body of the dead mother cell (viviparity) First noted case of viviparous behavior in prokaryotic world
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General Characteristics of Prokaryotic Organisms
Arrangements of Prokaryotic Cells Result from two aspects of division during binary fission Planes in which cells divide Separation of daughter cells
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Figure 11.7 Arrangements of cocci.
Plane of division Diplococci Streptococci Tetrads Sarcinae Staphylococci
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Figure 11.8 Arrangements of bacilli.
Single bacillus Diplobacilli Streptobacilli Palisade V-shape
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Modern Prokaryotic Classification
Currently based on genetic relatedness of rRNA sequences Three domains Archaea Bacteria Eukarya
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Figure 11.9 Prokaryotic taxonomy.
BACTERIA PHYLUM CHLOROFLEXI (green nonsulfur) Thermophilic bacteria PHYLUM DEINOCOCCUS-THERMUS Deeply branching bacteria GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA PHYLUM PROTEOBACTERIA PHYLUM AQUIFICAE Rickettsias () Purple nonsulfur () Nitrifying () Nitrogen fixing () Myxobacteria () PHYLUM CHLOROBI (green sulfur) Campylobacteria () Gammaproteobacteria () Neisserias () PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA PHYLUM FIBROBACTERES PHYLUM BACTEROIDETES PHYLUM CHLAMYDIAE PHYLUM PLANCTOMYCETES PHYLUM SPIROCHAETES ARCHAEA PHYLUM EURYARCHAEOTA Low G+C Gram-positive Methanogens PHYLUM CRENARCHAEOTA PHYLUM FIRMICUTES PHYLUM FUSOBACTERIA Clostridia Halophiles Mycoplasmas Selenomonas Bacilli, lactobacili, cocci Streptomyces Atopobium Arthrobacter Corynebacterium Mycobacterium Nocardia Thermophilic archaea PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAHigh G+C Gram-positive
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Survey of Archaea Common features
Lack true peptidoglycan Cell membrane lipids have branched hydrocarbon chains AUG codon codes for methionine Two phyla: Crenarchaeota, Euryarchaeota Reproduce by binary fission, budding, or fragmentation Are cocci, bacilli, spirals, or pleomorphic Not known to cause disease
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Figure Archaea.
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Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Require extreme conditions to survive
Temperature, pH, and/or salinity Prominent members are thermophiles and halophiles
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Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Thermophiles
DNA, RNA, cytoplasmic membranes, and proteins do not function properly below 45ºC Hyperthermophiles – require temperatures over 80ºC Two representative genera Geogemma Pyrodictium
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Figure 11.11 Some hyperthermophilic archaea live in hot springs.
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Survey of Archaea Extremophiles Halophiles
Inhabit extremely saline habitats Depend on greater than 9% NaCl to maintain integrity of cell walls Many contain red or orange pigments May protect from sunlight Most studied – Halobacterium salinarium
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Figure 11.12 The habitat of halophiles: highly saline water.
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Survey of Archaea Methanogens Largest group of archaea
Convert carbon dioxide, hydrogen gas, and organic acids to methane gas Convert organic wastes in pond, lake, and ocean sediments to methane Some live in colons of animals One of primary sources of environmental methane Have produced ~10 trillion tons of methane that is buried in mud on ocean floor
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Survey of Bacteria Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria
Deeply branching bacteria Scientists believe these organisms are similar to earliest bacteria Autotrophic Live in habitats similar to those thought to exist on early Earth Aquifex Considered to represent earliest branch of bacteria Deinococcus Has outer membrane similar to Gram-negatives, but stains Gram-positive
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Survey of Bacteria Deeply Branching and Phototrophic Bacteria
Phototrophs that contain photosynthetic lamellae Autotrophic Divided into five groups based on pigments and source of electrons for photosynthesis Blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria) Green sulfur bacteria Green nonsulfur bacteria Purple sulfur bacteria Purple nonsulfur bacteria
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Figure 11.13 Examples of cyanobacteria with different growth habits.
Vegetative cell Heterocyst Akinete Sheath (glycocalyx)
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Figure 11.14 Deposits of sulfur within purple sulfur bacteria.
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Photosynthesis: Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
PLAY
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Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Clostridia
Rod-shaped, obligate anaerobes Important in medicine and industry Microbes related to Clostridium include Epulopiscium, sulfate-reducing microbes, and Selenomonas
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Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Mycoplasmas
Facultative or obligate anaerobes Lack cell walls Smallest free-living cells Colonize mucous membranes of the respiratory and urinary tracts
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Figure 11.15 The distinctive "fried egg" appearance of Mycoplasma colonies.
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Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria
Other low G + C bacilli and cocci Bacillus Many common in soil Bacillus thuringiensis toxin used by farmers and gardeners as an insecticide Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax
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Bacillus thuringiensis
Figure Crystals of Bt toxin, produced by the endospore-forming Bacillus thuringiensis. Bt toxin Bacillus thuringiensis
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Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria
Other low G + C bacilli and cocci Listeria Contaminates milk and meat products Capable of reproducing under refrigeration Can cross the placenta in pregnant women Lactobacillus Grows in the body but rarely causes disease Used in the production of various foods
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Survey of Bacteria Low G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria
Other low G + C bacilli and cocci Streptococcus and Enterococcus Cause numerous diseases Various strains of multi-drug-resistant streptococci Staphylococcus One of the most common inhabitants of humans Produce toxins and enzymes that contribute to disease
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Survey of Bacteria High G + C Gram-Positive Bacteria Corynebacterium
Pleomorphic aerobes and facultative anaerobes Produces metachromatic granules Mycobacterium Aerobic rods that sometimes form filaments Slow growth partly due to mycolic acid in its cell walls Actinomycetes Form branching filaments resembling fungi Important genera include Actinomyces, Nocardia, Streptomyces
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Figure 11.17 The branching filaments of actinomycetes.
Spores
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria
Largest and most diverse group of bacteria Five classes of proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria Betaproteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria Deltaproteobacteria Epsilonproteobacteria
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria
Nitrogen fixers Two genera important to agriculture Grow in association with the roots of plants Azospirillum Rhizobium
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Figure A prostheca. Flagellum Prostheca
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Figure 11.19 Nodules on pea plant roots.
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria
Nitrifying bacteria Oxidation of nitrogenous compounds provides electrons Important in the environment and agriculture Nitrobacter Purple nonsulfur phototrophs Grow at the bottom of lakes and ponds
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria
Pathogenic alphaproteobacteria Rickettsia Transmitted through bite of an arthropod Cause several human diseases Brucella Causes brucellosis
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Alphaproteobacteria
Other alphaproteobacteria Acetobacter Gluconobacter Caulobacter
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Figure 11.20 Growth and reproduction of Caulobacter.
Rock or other substrate 1 Prostheca Flagellum 2 Swarmer cell Cell doubles in size 3 4a or 4b Rosette
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Figure A plant gall.
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Betaproteobacteria
Pathogenic betaproteobacteria Neisseria Inhabit mucous membranes of mammals Causes numerous diseases Bordetella Causes pertussis Burkholderia Colonizes moist environmental surfaces and respiratory passages of cystic fibrosis patients
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Betaproteobacteria
Other betaproteobacteria Thiobacillus Recycles sulfur in the environment Zoogloea Form flocs that assist in the treatment of sewage Sphaerotilus Flocs impede flow of waste in treatment plants
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria
Largest and most diverse class of proteobacteria Divided into subgroups Purple sulfur bacteria Intracellular pathogens Methane oxidizers Glycolytic facultative anaerobes Pseudomonads
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Figure 11.22 Purple sulfur bacteria.
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria
Intracellular pathogens Legionella Causes Legionnaires' disease Coxiella Causes Q fever Methane oxidizers Use methane as a carbon and energy source Inhabit anaerobic environments
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria
Glycolytic facultative anaerobes Catabolize carbohydrates by glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway Divided into three families
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Gammaproteobacteria
Pseudomonads Break down numerous organic compounds Important pathogens of humans and animals Pseudomonas causes urinary tract, ear, and lung infections Azotobacter Azomonas
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Figure 11.23 Two dividing Pseudomonas cells and their characteristic polar flagella.
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Deltaproteobacteria
Desulfovibrio Bdellovibrio Myxobacteria
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Bdellovibrio Bacterial prey Cell wall Periplasmic 10 minutes 1 space 2
Figure Bdellovibrio, a Gram-negative pathogen of other Gram-negative bacteria. Bdellovibrio Bacterial prey Cell wall Periplasmic space 1 10 minutes 2 5 10 seconds Cytoplasmic membrane 20 minutes 3 4 20 minutes 150–210 minutes
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Figure 11.25 Life cycle of myxobacteria.
Binary fission (nutrients plentiful) 1 Slime trail 5 Vegetative cells Myxospores germinate to form vegetative cells once nutrients are restored Mounding when nutrients are depleted Myxospores 4 Sporangium Myxospores Mound of cells Sporangium 2 Formation of fruiting body 3 Fruiting body
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Survey of Bacteria Gram-Negative Proteobacteria Epsilonproteobacteria
Campylobacter Helicobacter
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Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Chlamydias
Grow intracellularly in mammals, birds, and some invertebrates Some are smaller than viruses Most common sexually transmitted bacteria in the United States
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Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Spirochetes
Motile bacteria that move in a corkscrew motion Have diverse metabolism and habitats Treponema and Borrelia both cause disease in humans
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Survey of Bacteria Other Gram-Negative Bacteria Bacteroids Bacteroides
Inhabit digestive tracts of humans and animals Some species cause infections Cytophaga Aquatic, gliding bacteria Important in the degradation of raw sewage
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