Classification https://store.theartofservice.com/the-classification-toolkit.html.

Classification

Disaster recovery Classification of disasters
Disasters can be classified into two broad categories

Barriers to entry Classification and examples
Michael Porter classifies the markets into four general cases:

High barrier to entry and high exit barrier (for example, telecommunications, energy)

High barrier to entry and low exit barrier (for example, consulting, education)

Markets with high entry barriers have few players and thus high profit margins.

Markets with low entry barriers have lots of players and thus low profit margins.

Markets with high exit barriers are unstable and not self-regulated, so the profit margins fluctuate very much over time.

Markets with a low exit barrier are stable and self-regulated, so the profit margins do not fluctuate much over time.

The higher the barriers to entry and exit, the more prone a market tends to be a natural monopoly. The reverse is also true. The lower the barriers, the more likely the market will become perfect competition.

Classified information Government classification
The purpose of classification is to protect information from being used to damage or endanger national security. Classification formalises what constitutes a "state secret" and accords different levels of protection based on the expected damage the information might cause in the wrong hands.

Classified information Government classification
However, classified information is frequently "leaked" to reporters by officials for political purposes. Several U.S. presidents have leaked sensitive information to get their point across to the public.

Classified information Classification levels
Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels corresponding to the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest)

Classified information NATO classifications
For example, sensitive information shared amongst NATO allies has four levels of security classification; from most to least classified:

A special case exists with regard to NATO UNCLASSIFIED (NU) information. Documents with this marking are NATO property (copyright) and must not be made public without NATO permission. In general documents with this classification aren't cleared for internet-transmission either, unless clearly marked with RELEASABLE FOR INTERNET TRANSMISSION. Documents that can be made public, however, should be clearly marked with NON SENSITIVE INFORMATION RELEASABLE TO THE PUBLIC.

This level is given to people who need to have access to the joint Atomic program of NATO. This level is never given permanently to anyone, regardless of jobtitle - e.g. President of the U.S.A. etc. It is only given for short periods of time, when needed.

Albania Teper Sekret Sekret Konfidencial I Kufizuar
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Albania Teper Sekret Sekret Konfidencial I Kufizuar

Australia Top Secret Secret Confidential For Official Use Only
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Australia Top Secret Secret Confidential For Official Use Only

Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries
Bolivia Supersecreto

or Muy Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries or Muy Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Brazil Ultrassecreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Brazil Ultrassecreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Cambodia Sam Ngat Bamphot Sam Ngat Roeung Art Kambang Ham Kom Psay
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Cambodia Sam Ngat Bamphot Sam Ngat Roeung Art Kambang Ham Kom Psay

Canada Top Secret/Très secret Secret/Secret Confidential/Confidentiel Protected A, B or C / Protégé A, B ou C

China, People's Republic of Juémì (绝密) Jīmì (机密) Mìmì (秘密) Nèibù (内部)
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries China, People's Republic of Juémì (绝密) Jīmì (机密) Mìmì (秘密) Nèibù (内部)

China, Republic of "Absolutely" Secret (絕對機密) "Extremely" Secret (極機密) Secret (機密) no direct equivalent

Colombia Ultrasecreto Secreto Confidencial Reserva del sumario
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Colombia Ultrasecreto Secreto Confidencial Reserva del sumario

Denmark Yderst Hemmeligt Hemmeligt Fortroligt Til Tjenestebrug
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Denmark Yderst Hemmeligt Hemmeligt Fortroligt Til Tjenestebrug

Ecuador Secretisimo Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Ecuador Secretisimo Secreto Confidencial Reservado

El Salvador Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries El Salvador Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Estonia Täiesti salajane Salajane Konfidentsiaalne Piiratud
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Estonia Täiesti salajane Salajane Konfidentsiaalne Piiratud

Ethiopia Yemiaz Birtou Mistir Mistir Kilkil
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Ethiopia Yemiaz Birtou Mistir Mistir Kilkil

European Union (EU) TRES SECRET UE / EU TOP SECRET SECRET UE / EU SECRET CONFIDENTIEL UE / EU CONFIDENTIAL RESTREINT UE / EU RESTRICTED

European Union (Western) (WEU) FOCAL TOP SECRET WEU SECRET WEU CONFIDENTIAL WEU RESTRICTED

Euratom EURA TOP SECRET EURA SECRET EURA CONFIDENTIAL EURA RESTRICTED
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Euratom EURA TOP SECRET EURA SECRET EURA CONFIDENTIAL EURA RESTRICTED

Finland Erittäin salainen (TLL I) Salainen (TLL II) Luottamuksellinen (TLL III) Viranomaiskäyttö (TLL IV)

France Très secret défense Secret défense Confidentiel défense Diffusion restreinte

Guatemala Alto Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Guatemala Alto Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Honduras Super Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Honduras Super Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Hungary Szigorúan Titkos Titkos Bizalmas Korlátozott Terjesztésű
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Hungary Szigorúan Titkos Titkos Bizalmas Korlátozott Terjesztésű

India (Hindi) परम गुप्त (Param Gupt) गुप्त (Gupt) गोपनीय (Gopniya) प्रतिबंधित/सीमित (Pratibandhit/seemit)

Korea, South I(Il)-geup Bimil, 1급비밀 II(I)-geup Bimil, 2급비밀 III(Sam)-geup Bimil, 3급비밀 Daeoebi, 대외비

Lithuania Visiškai Slaptai Slaptai Konfidencialiai Riboto Naudojimo
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Lithuania Visiškai Slaptai Slaptai Konfidencialiai Riboto Naudojimo

Mexico Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Restringido
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Mexico Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Restringido

Netherlands STG. Zeer Geheim STG. Geheim STG. Confidentieel Departementaal Vertrouwelijk

Nicaragua Alto Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Nicaragua Alto Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Paraguay Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Paraguay Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Peru Estrictamente Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Peru Estrictamente Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Poland Ściśle tajne Tajne Poufne Zastrzeżone
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Poland Ściśle tajne Tajne Poufne Zastrzeżone

Portugal Ultrassecreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Portugal Ultrassecreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Romania Strict Secret de Importanţă Deosebită Strict Secret Secret Secret de serviciu

(Конфиденциально) (Ne podlezhit oglasheniyu (Konfidentsial'no)) Для Служебного Пользования (ДСП)

(Dlya Sluzhebnogo Pol'zovaniya)
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries (Dlya Sluzhebnogo Pol'zovaniya)

Saudi Arabia Saudi Top Secret Saudi Very Secret Saudi Secret Saudi Restricted

Slovak Republic Prísne tajné Tajné Dôverné Vyhradené
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Slovak Republic Prísne tajné Tajné Dôverné Vyhradené

Slovenia Strogo tajno Tajno Zaupno Interno
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Slovenia Strogo tajno Tajno Zaupno Interno

Spain Secreto Reservado Confidencial Difusión Limitada
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Spain Secreto Reservado Confidencial Difusión Limitada

Switzerland GEHEIM / SECRET VERTRAULICH / CONFIDENTIEL INTERN / INTERNE

South Africa (English) Top Secret Secret Confidential Restricted
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries South Africa (English) Top Secret Secret Confidential Restricted

South Africa (Afrikaans) Uiters Geheim Geheim Vertroulik Beperk
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries South Africa (Afrikaans) Uiters Geheim Geheim Vertroulik Beperk

United Kingdom TOP SECRET SECRET CONFIDENTIAL RESTRICTED
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries United Kingdom TOP SECRET SECRET CONFIDENTIAL RESTRICTED

United States Top Secret Secret Confidential For Official Use Only
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries United States Top Secret Secret Confidential For Official Use Only

Uruguay Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado
Classified information Table of equivalent classification markings in various countries Uruguay Ultra Secreto Secreto Confidencial Reservado

Original source: NISPOM Appendix B ¹ In addition, Finland uses label Salassa pidettävä, "to be kept secret" for information that is not classified but must not be revealed on some other basis than national security. (E.g. privacy, trade secrets etc.)

Classified information Corporate classification
However, corporate security generally lacks the elaborate hierarchical clearance and sensitivity structures and the harsh criminal sanctions that give government classification systems their particular tone.

Business Classifications
Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals.

Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and of capital.

Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies.

Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers.

Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties comprising land, residential homes, and other kinds of buildings.

Retailers and distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.

Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses, or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms, restaurants, and even entertainers are types of service businesses.

Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs.

Utilities produce public services such as electricity or sewage treatment, usually under a government charter.

There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent European Union list is the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE).

Predictive analytics Classification and regression trees
Classification and regression trees (CART) is a non-parametric decision tree learning technique that produces either classification or regression trees, depending on whether the dependent variable is categorical or numeric, respectively.

Decision trees are formed by a collection of rules based on variables in the modeling data set:

Rules based on variables' values are selected to get the best split to differentiate observations based on the dependent variable

Once a rule is selected and splits a node into two, the same process is applied to each "child" node (i.e. it is a recursive procedure)

Splitting stops when CART detects no further gain can be made, or some pre-set stopping rules are met. (Alternatively, the data are split as much as possible and then the tree is later pruned.)

Each branch of the tree ends in a terminal node. Each observation falls into one and exactly one terminal node, and each terminal node is uniquely defined by a set of rules.

A very popular method for predictive analytics is Leo Breiman's Random forests or derived versions of this technique like Random multinomial logit.

Basque language History and classification
Though geographically surrounded by Indo-European Romance languages, Basque is classified as a language isolate

Some authors have noted that the words for "knife" (aizto), "ax" (aizkora) and "hoe" (aitzur) seem to derive from the word for "stone" (haitz), and have therefore concluded that the language dates to the Stone Age or Neolithic period, when those tools were made of stone; others find this unlikely; see the aizkora controversy.

Latin inscriptions in Aquitania preserve a number of words with cognates in reconstructed proto-Basque, for instance the personal names Nescato and Cison (neskato and gizon mean "young girl" and "man" respectively in modern Basque)

Roman neglect of this area allowed Aquitanian to survive while the Iberian and Tartessian languages became extinct. Through the long contact with Romance languages, Basque adopted a sizable number of Romance words. Initially the source was Latin, later Gascon (a branch of Occitan) in the northeast, Navarro-Aragonese in the southeast and Spanish in the southwest.

Basque language Classification
A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 by John D. Bengston (scanned pages)

Social Media Classification of Social Media
By applying a set of theories in the field of media research (social presence, media richness) and social processes (self-presentation, self-disclosure) Kaplan and Haenlein created a classification scheme in their Business Horizons (2010) article, with six different types of Social Media: collaborative projects (for example, ), blogs and microblogs (for example, Twitter), content communities (for example, YouTube and DailyMotion), social networking sites (for example, Facebook), virtual game worlds (e.g., World of Warcraft), and virtual social worlds (e.g

Cost accounting Classification of costs
Classification of cost means, the grouping of costs according to their common characteristics. The important ways of classification of costs are:

By Nature or Traceability:Direct Costs and Indirect Costs. Direct Costs are Directly attributable/traceable to Cost Object. Direct costs are assigned to Cost Object. Indirect Costs are not directly attributable/traceable to Cost Object. Indirect costs are allocated or apportioned to cost objects.

By Functions: production,administration, selling and distribution, R&D.

By Behavior: fixed, variable, semi-variable. Costs are classified according to their behavior in relation to change in relation to production volume within given period of time. Fixed Costs remain fixed irrespective of changes in the production volume in given period of time. Variable costs change according to volume of production. Semi-variable Costs costs are partly fixed and partly variable.

By control ability: controllable, uncontrollable costs. Controllable costs are those which can be controlled or influenced by a conscious management action. Uncontrollable costs cannot be controlled or influenced by a conscious management action.

By normality: normal costs and abnormal costs. Normal costs arise during routine day-to-day business operations. Abnormal costs arise because of any abnormal activity or event not part of routine business operations. E.g. costs arising of floods, riots, accidents etc.

By Time: Historical Costs and Predetermined costs. Historical costs re costs incurred in the past. Predetermined costs are computed in advance on basis of factors affecting cost elements. Example: Standard Costs.

By Decision making Costs: These costs are used for managerial decision making.

Marginal Costs: Marginal cost is the change in the aggregate costs due to change in the volume of output by one unit.

Opportunity Costs: It is the value of benefit sacrificed in favor of an alternative course of action.

Relevant Cost: The relevant cost is a cost which is relevant in various decisions of management.

Replacement Cost: This cost is the cost at which existing items of material or fixed assets can be replaced. Thus this is the cost of replacing existing assets at present or at a future date.

Shutdown Cost:These costs are the costs which are incurred if the operations are shut down and they will disappear if the operations are continued.

Capacity Cost: These costs are normally fixed costs. The cost incurred by a company for providing production, administration and selling and distribution capabilities in order to perform various functions.

Electronic business Classification by provider and consumer
Roughly dividing the world into providers/producers and consumers/clients one can classify e-businesses into the following categories:

Electronic business Classification by provider and consumer
It is notable that there are comparably less connections pointing "upwards" than "downwards" (few employee/consumer/citizen-to-X models).

Diversity (business) Classification of workplaces
In a journal article entitled "The multicultural organization" by Taylor Cox, Jr., Cox talks about three organization types that focus on the development of cultural diversity

The plural organization has a more heterogeneous membership than the monolithic organization and takes steps to be more inclusive of persons from cultural backgrounds that differ from the dominant group. This type of organization seeks to empower those from a marginalized standpoint to encourage opportunities for promotion and positions of leadership.

The multicultural organization not only contains many different cultural groups, but it values this diversity. It encourages healthy conflict as a source of avoiding groupthink.

Industry Classification of Industry
Industries can be classified in a variety of ways. At the top level, industry is often classified into sectors: Primary or extractive, secondary or manufacturing, and tertiary or services. Some authors add quaternary (knowledge) or even quinary (culture and research) sectors. Over time, the fraction of a society's industry within each sector changes.

Primary This involves the extraction of resources directly from the Earth, this includes farming, mining and logging. They do not process the products at all. They send it off to factories to make a profit.

Secondary This group is involved in the processing products from primary industries. This includes all factories—those that refine metals, produce furniture, or pack farm products such as meat.

Tertiary This group is involved in the provision of services. They include teachers, managers and other service providers.

Quaternary This group is involved in the research of science and technology. They include scientists.

Quinary Sector Some consider there to be a branch of the quaternary sector called the quinary sector, which includes the highest levels of decision making in a society or economy. This sector would include the top executives or officials in such fields as government, science, universities, nonprofit, healthcare, culture, and the media.

These classification systems commonly divide industries according to similar functions and markets and identify businesses producing related products

ArmSCII Code mappings and classification
Note that some transcodings are shown below between parentheses. They are only approximation fallbacks but do not map exactly the intended character.

Subset Character Armenian description or usage Short name Encodings Notes

ArmSCII-7 ArmSCII-8 ArmSCII-8A ISO Unicode ISO/IEC 10646

General purpose space space same as ASCII and Unicode

Armenian symbols eternity sign armeternity 21 A1 DC — — missing in Unicode

և ligature ech yiwn (ew) armew (3B,75) (26) (or BB,F5) (26) (or 89,F5) (55,72) 0587 (or 0565,0582) specific to Armenian : compatibility ligature of Armenian ech (yech) and yiwn (vyun) small letters, used as a symbol (similar to ampersand symbol in ASCII)

Armenian punctuation ։ full stop (vertsaket) armfullstop 23 A3 (3A) 4C 0589 specific to Armenian : looks mostly like ASCII colon, but distinct usage ; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII colon)

) right parenthesis armparenright 24 A4 29 (79) 0029 from ASCII, name and usage different and Unicode ; missing in ISO (suggested substitution uses dashes)

( left parenthesis armparenleft 25 A5 28 (79) 0028 from ASCII, name and usage different and Unicode ; missing in ISO (suggested substitution uses dashes)

» right quotation mark armquotright 26 A6 AF (7A) 00BB from ISO-8859, name and usage different and Unicode

« left quotation mark armquotleft 27 A7 AE (7A) 00AB from ISO-8859, name and usage different and Unicode

″ quotation mark — — (22) (22) 7A 2033 used for either left or right quotation mark in ISO 10585; missing in ArmSCII-8/8A (approximated by ASCII double quotation mark)

― em-dash armemdash 28 A8 (5F) from ISO-8859; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII underscore)

. middle dot (mijaket) armdot 29 A9 (2E) 7C 2024 sometimes similar to ASCII full stop, but usage different in Armenian where the middle dot is preferred; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII full stop)

՝ separation mark (but) armsep 2A AA (60) D usage specific to Armenian : used as a comma ; = bowt ; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII backquote)

, comma armcomma 2B AB 2C 4D 002C same as ASCII and Unicode comma

‐ dash armendash 2C AC (2D) similar to the short variant of the ASCII and Unicode minus-hyphen (shorter than the general purpose minus sign used in ASCII) ; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII minus-hyphen)

Armenian modifier letters ֊ hyphen (yentamna) armyentamna 2D AD DD 4A 058A specific to Armenian : a modifier letter that modifies another Armenian normal letter (possibly with combining punctuation between them)

… ellipsis armellipsis 2E AE DE (7C,7C,7C) 2026 from ISO-8859, but not a punctuation : a modifier letter that follows and modifies another normal Armenian letter (possibly with combining punctuation between them)

ՙ numeric mark (left half-ring) armnum — — — — 0559 specific to Armenian : a modifier letter that modifies another Armenian normal letter (possibly with combining punctuation between them) ; missing in all ArmSCII variants

՚ apostrophe (right half-ring) armapostrophe 7E FE FE A specific to Armenian : a modifier letter that modifies another Armenian normal letter (possibly with combining punctuation between them)

Armenian combining punctuation ՜ exclamation mark (amanak) armexclam 2F AF (7E) 7E 055C specific to Armenian : these diacritics encode punctuation but may appear on top of a letter in the middle of any word (it may be ignored in searches); Unicode handles them as modifier letters however they are normally not spacing ; = batsaganchakan nshan ; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII tilde symbol)

՛ emphasis mark (shesht) armaccent 30 B0 (27) 7D 055B specific to Armenian : these diacritics encode punctuation but may appear on top of a letter in the middle of any word (it may be ignored in searches); Unicode handles them as modifier letters however they are normally not spacing ; missing in ArmSCII-8A (approximated by ASCII single quote)

՞ question mark (paruyk) armquestion 31 B1 DF 4E 055E specific to Armenian : these diacritics encode punctuation but may appear on top of a letter in the middle of any word (it may be ignored in searches); Unicode handles them as modifier letters however they are normally not spacing ; = hartsakan nshan

՟ abbreviation mark (patiw) armabbrev — — — 4F 055F specific to Armenian : these diacritics encode punctuation but may appear on top of a letter in the middle of any word (it may be ignored in searches); Unicode handles them as modifier letters however they are normally not spacing

Arsenic - Classification
Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as "toxic" and "dangerous for the environment" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.

Arsenic - Classification
Arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis owing to its manifestation in drinking water, "the most common species being arsenate [HAsO2−

Greek language - Classification
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. The ancient languages probably most closely related to it, ancient Macedonian (which many linguistic scholars suggest is a dialect of Greek itself) and Phrygian, are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Some Indo-Europeanists claim that Greek seems to be most closely related to Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian) and the Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan) among the living Indo-European languages.

Hypervisor - Classification
In their 1974 article "Formal Requirements for Virtualizable Third Generation Architectures" Gerald J. Popek and Robert P. Goldberg classified two types of hypervisor:

Type 1 (or native, bare metal) hypervisors run directly on the host's hardware to control the hardware and to manage guest Operating Systems. A guest operating-system thus runs on another level above the hypervisor.

This model represents the classic implementation of virtual-machine architectures; IBM developed the original hypervisors as bare-metal tools in the 1960s: the test tool, SIMMON, and CP/CMS. CP/CMS was the ancestor of IBM's z/VM. Modern equivalents include Oracle VM Server for SPARC, Oracle VM Server for x86, the Citrix XenServer, VMware ESX/ESXi and Microsoft Hyper-V 2008/2012.

Type 2 (or hosted) hypervisors run within a conventional operating-system environment. With the hypervisor layer as a distinct second software level, guest operating-systems run at the third level above the hardware. VMware Workstation and VirtualBox exemplify Type 2 hypervisors.

The classification of specific hypervisor implementations as Type 1 or Type 2 is not always clear cut. For example:

Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) and bhyve are implemented as a kernel modules for Linux and FreeBSD respectively which, when loaded, allows its host Operating System to act as a bare metal (i.e., Type 1) hypervisor. However, as Linux distributions and FreeBSD are Operating Systems in their own right, one can argue that KVM and bhyve are Type 2 hypervisors.

Microsoft Hyper-V (released in June 2008) has also been misidentified as a Type 2 hypervisor. Both the free stand-alone version and the version that is part of the commercial Windows Server 2008 product use a virtualized Windows Server 2008 parent partition to manage the Type 1 Hyper-V hypervisor. In both cases the Hyper-V hypervisor loads prior to the management operating-system, and any virtual environments created run directly on the hypervisor, not via the management operating-system.

Attempts have been made to introduce the term Type 0 (Zero) Hypervisor to differentiate specific hypervisor implementations. However, no consensus as to the validity of this term has been reached.

Persian language - Classification
Persian belongs to the Western branch of the Iranian family of Indo-European languages, which also includes Kurdish, Mazandarani, Gilaki, Talyshi, and Baluchi. The language is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along with the Larestani, Kumzari and Luri languages.

Linux Mint - Package classification
Linux Mint divides its software repositories into four main channels that reflect differences in their nature and in their origin.

Provides only software that is developed by Linux Mint.

Provides software which is present in Ubuntu but patched or modified by Linux Mint. As a result, the software provided by this channel behaves differently in each distribution. Notable examples are Grub, Plymouth, Ubiquity, Xchat, USB Creator and Yelp (the help system).

Provides software that is not available in Ubuntu or for which no recent versions are available in Ubuntu. Notable examples are Opera, Picasa, Skype, Songbird, the 64-bit Adobe Flash plugin and Frostwire.

Not enabled by default. Provides test packages before they are promoted to other (stable) channels. As such it represents the unstable branch of Linux Mint.

Additionally, there is a "backport" channel for ports of newer software to older releases without affecting the other channels. It is not enabled by default.

Decision support system - Classification
There are several ways to classify DSS applications. Not every DSS fits neatly into one of the categories, but may be a mix of two or more architectures.

Holsapple and Whinston classify DSS into the following six frameworks: Text-oriented DSS, Database-oriented DSS, Spreadsheet-oriented DSS, Solver-oriented DSS, Rule-oriented DSS, and Compound DSS.

A compound DSS is the most popular classification for a DSS. It is a hybrid system that includes two or more of the five basic structures described by Holsapple and Whinston.

The support given by DSS can be separated into three distinct, interrelated categories: Personal Support, Group Support, and Organizational Support.

Inputs: Factors, numbers, and characteristics to analyze

User Knowledge and Expertise: Inputs requiring manual analysis by the user

Outputs: Transformed data from which DSS "decisions" are generated

Decisions: Results generated by the DSS based on user criteria

DSSs which perform selected cognitive decision-making functions and are based on Artificial Intelligence or intelligent agents technologies are called Intelligent Decision Support Systems (IDSS).

The nascent field of Decision engineering treats the decision itself as an engineered object, and applies engineering principles such as Design and Quality assurance to an explicit representation of the elements that make up a decision.

Capuchin monkey - Classification
The species-level taxonomy of this genus remains highly controversial, and alternative treatments than the one listed below have been suggested.

In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro et al proposed that the robust capuchins (formerly the C. apella group) be placed in a separate genus, Sapajus, from the gracile capuchins (formerly the C. capucinus group) which retain the Cebus genus. Other primatologists, such as Paul Garber, have begun using this classification.

According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago

White-fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons

Ecuadorian capuchin, Cebus albifrons aequatorialis

Shock-headed capuchin, Cebus albifrons cuscinus

Trinidad white-fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons trinitatis

Varied capuchin, Cebus albifrons versicolor

White-faced or white-headed capuchin, Cebus capucinus

Kaapori capuchin, Cebus kaapori

Wedge-capped capuchin, Cebus olivaceus

Black-capped, brown or tufted capuchin, Sapajus apella

Guiana brown capuchin, Sapajus apella apella

Large-headed capuchin, Sapajus apella macrocephalus

Black-striped capuchin, Sapajus libidinosus

Crested capuchin or robust tufted capuchin, Sapajus nigritus robustus

Golden-bellied capuchin, Sapajus xanthosternos

Organic compound - Modern classification
Even though vitalism has been discredited, the distinction between "organic" and "inorganic" compounds has been retained through the present. The modern meaning of "organic compound" is any one of them that contains a significant amount of carbon – even though many of the "organic compounds" known today have no connection whatsoever with any substance found in living organisms.

There is no "official" definition of an organic compound. Some textbooks define an organic compound as one containing one or more C-H bonds; others include C-C bonds in the definition. Others state that if a molecule contains carbon―it is organic.

Even the broader definition of "carbon-containing molecules" requires the exclusion of carbon-containing alloys (including steel), a relatively small number of carbon-containing compounds such as metal carbonates and carbonyls, simple oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon and simple carbon halides and sulfides, which are usually considered to be inorganic.

The "C-H" definition excludes compounds that are historically and practically considered to be organic

The "C-H bond-only" rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, as, for example, Teflon is considered by this rule "inorganic" but Tefzel organic. Likewise, many Halons are considered inorganic, whereas the rest are considered organic. For these and other reasons, most sources consider C-H compounds to be only a subset of "organic" compounds.

In summary, most carbon-containing compounds are organic, and almost all organic compounds contain at least a C-H bond or a C-C bond. A compound does not need to contain C-H bonds to be considered organic (e.g. urea), but many organic compounds do.

Organic compound - Classification
Organic chemistry#Classification of organic compounds

Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways. One major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Organic compounds can also be classified or subdivided by the presence of heteroatoms, e.g., organometallic compounds, which feature bonds between carbon and a metal, and organophosphorus compounds, which feature bonds between carbon and a phosphorus.

Another distinction, based upon the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers.

Exciton - Classification
Excitons may be treated in two limiting cases, depending on the properties of the material in question.

Integrated circuit - Classification
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).

Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers, work using binary mathematics to process "one" and "zero" signals.

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, and mixing. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.

Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize the huge variety of integrated circuits now available:

Digital ICs are further sub-categorized as logic ICs, memory chips, interface ICs (level shifters, serializer/deserializer, etc.), Power Management ICs, and programmable devices.

Analog ICs are further sub-categorized as linear ICs and RF ICs.

mixed-signal integrated circuits are further sub-categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D converters, D/A converter, digital potentiometers) and clock/timing ICs.

Electronic component - Classification
A component may be classified as passive, active, or electromechanic. The strict physics definition treats passive components as ones that cannot supply energy themselves, whereas a battery would be seen as an active component since it truly acts as a source of energy.

However, electronic engineers who perform circuit analysis use a more restrictive definition of passivity

Active components rely on a source of energy (usually from the DC circuit, which we have chosen to ignore) and usually can inject power into a circuit, though this is not part of the definition. Active components include amplifying components such as transistors, triode vacuum tubes (valves), and tunnel diodes.

Passive components can't introduce net energy into the circuit. They also can't rely on a source of power, except for what is available from the (AC) circuit they are connected to. As a consequence they can't amplify (increase the power of a signal), although they may increase a voltage or current (such as is done by a transformer or resonant circuit). Passive components include two-terminal components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers.

Electromechanical components can carry out electrical operations by using moving parts or by using electrical connections

Most passive components with more than two terminals can be described in terms of two-port parameters that satisfy the principle of reciprocity—though there are rare exceptions. In contrast, active components (with more than two terminals) generally lack that property.

Satellite - Centric classifications
Geocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently there are approximately 2465 artificial satellites orbiting the Earth.

Heliocentric orbit: An orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris. Moons by contrast are not in a heliocentric orbit but rather orbit their parent planet.

Areocentric orbit: An orbit around the planet Mars, such as by moons or artificial satellites.

The general structure of a satellite is that it is connected to the earth stations that are present on the ground and connected through terrestrial links.

Satellite - Altitude classifications
Low Earth orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240 miles)

Medium Earth orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km (1,200 mi) to just below geosynchronous orbit at 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit.

High Earth orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi).

Satellite - Inclination classifications
Inclined orbit: An orbit whose inclination in reference to the equatorial plane is not zero degrees.

Polar orbit: An orbit that passes above or nearly above both poles of the planet on each revolution. Therefore it has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees.

Polar sun synchronous orbit: A nearly polar orbit that passes the equator at the same local time on every pass. Useful for image taking satellites because shadows will be nearly the same on every pass.

Satellite - Eccentricity classifications
Circular orbit: An orbit that has an eccentricity of 0 and whose path traces a circle.

Hohmann transfer orbit: An orbital maneuver that moves a spacecraft from one circular orbit to another using two engine impulses. This maneuver was named after Walter Hohmann.

Geosynchronous transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit.

Geostationary transfer orbit: An elliptic orbit where the perigee is at the altitude of a Low Earth orbit (LEO) and the apogee at the altitude of a geostationary orbit.

Molniya orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of half of a sidereal day (roughly 12 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over two designated areas of the planet (specifically Russia and the United States).

Tundra orbit: A highly elliptic orbit with inclination of 63.4° and orbital period of one sidereal day (roughly 24 hours). Such a satellite spends most of its time over a single designated area of the planet.

Satellite - Synchronous classifications
Synchronous orbit: An orbit where the satellite has an orbital period equal to the average rotational period (earth's is: 23 hours, 56 minutes, seconds) of the body being orbited and in the same direction of rotation as that body. To a ground observer such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.

Semi-synchronous orbit (SSO): An orbit with an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi) and an orbital period equal to one-half of the average rotational period (earth's is approximately 12 hours) of the body being orbited

Geosynchronous orbit (GSO): Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi). Such a satellite would trace an analemma (figure 8) in the sky.

Geostationary orbit (GEO): A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.

Clarke orbit: Another name for a geostationary orbit. Named after scientist and writer Arthur C. Clarke.

Supersynchronous orbit: A disposal / storage orbit above GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift west. Also a synonym for Disposal orbit.

Subsynchronous orbit: A drift orbit close to but below GSO/GEO. Satellites will drift east.

Graveyard orbit: An orbit a few hundred kilometers above geosynchronous that satellites are moved into at the end of their operation.

Junk orbit: A synonym for graveyard orbit.

Areosynchronous orbit: A synchronous orbit around the planet Mars with an orbital period equal in length to Mars' sidereal day, hours.

Areostationary orbit (ASO): A circular areosynchronous orbit on the equatorial plane and about km(10557 miles) above the surface. To an observer on the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky.

Heliosynchronous orbit: A heliocentric orbit about the Sun where the satellite's orbital period matches the Sun's period of rotation. These orbits occur at a radius of 24,360 Gm ( AU) around the Sun, a little less than half of the orbital radius of Mercury.

Satellite - Special classifications
Sun-synchronous orbit: An orbit which combines altitude and inclination in such a way that the satellite passes over any given point of the planets's surface at the same local solar time. Such an orbit can place a satellite in constant sunlight and is useful for imaging, spy, and weather satellites.

Satellite - Special classifications
Moon orbit: The orbital characteristics of Earth's Moon. Average altitude of 384,403 kilometres (238,857 mi), elliptical–inclined orbit.

Satellite - Pseudo-orbit classifications
Horseshoe orbit: An orbit that appears to a ground observer to be orbiting a certain planet but is actually in co-orbit with the planet. See asteroids 3753 (Cruithne) and 2002 AA29.

Exo-orbit: A maneuver where a spacecraft approaches the height of orbit but lacks the velocity to sustain it.

Suborbital spaceflight: A synonym for exo-orbit.

Lunar transfer orbit (LTO)

Retrograde orbit: An orbit with an inclination of more than 90°

Hacker (computer security) - Classifications
Several subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other, or try to exclude some specific group with which they do not agree.

Eric S

According to (Clifford R.D. 2006) a cracker or cracking is to "gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system". These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities.

Sensor - Classification of measurement errors
A good sensor obeys the following rules:

Is sensitive to the measured property only

Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application

Does not influence the measured property

Ideal sensors are designed to be linear or linear to some simple mathematical function of the measurement, typically logarithmic

For an analog sensor signal to be processed, or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter.

Fuel oil - Standards and classification
CCAI and CII are two indexes which describe the ignition quality of residual fuel oil, and CCAI is especially often calculated for marine fuels

IFO Intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 380 Centistokes (<3.5% sulphur)

IFO Intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 180 Centistokes (<3.5% sulphur)

LS Low-sulphur (<1.0%) intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 380 Centistokes

LS Low-sulphur (<1.0%) intermediate fuel oil with a maximum viscosity of 180 Centistokes

LSMGO - Low-sulphur (<0.1%) Marine Gas Oil - The fuel is to be used in EU community Ports and Anchorages. EU Sulphur directive 2005/33/EC

ULSMGO - Ultra Low Sulphur Marine Gas Oil - referred to as Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (sulphur % max) in the US and Auto Gas Oil (sulphur 0.001% max) in the EU. Maximum sulphur allowable in US territories and territorial waters (inland, marine and automotive) and in the EU for inland use.

The density is also an important parameter for fuel oils since marine fuels are purified before use to remove water and dirt from the oil. Since the purifiers use centrifugal force, the oil must have a density which is sufficiently different from water. Older purifiers had a maximum of 991 kg/m3; with modern purifiers it is also possible to purify oil with a density of 1010 kg/m3.

The first British standard for fuel oil came in The latest standard is ISO 8217 from The ISO standard describe four qualities of distillate fuels and 10 qualities of residual fuels. Over the years the standards have become stricter on environmentally important parameters such as sulfur content. The latest standard also banned the adding of used lubricating oil (ULO).

Some parameters of marine fuel oils according to ISO 8217 (3. ed 2005):

Pour point, Summer °C Max

Pour point, Winter °C Max

Max sulfur content is 1.5% in designated areas. (since % is max).

The aluminium+silicon value is used to check for remains of the catalyst after catalytic cracking. Most catalysts contains aluminium or silicon and remains of catalyst can cause damage to the engine.

The flash point of all fuels used in the engine room should be at least 60°C (DMX is used for things like emergency generators and not normally used in the engine room).

Pour point, Summer °C Max

Pour point, Winter °C Max

The flash point of all fuels used in the engine room should be at least 60°C.(apart from those gaseous fuels such as LPG/LNG which have special class rules applied to the fuel systems)

Publication - Biological classification
In biological classification (taxonomy), the publication of the description of a taxon has to comply with some rules. The definition of the "publication" is defined in nomenclature codes. Traditionally there were the following rules:

The publication must be generally available.

The date of publication is the date the published material became generally available.

Electronic publication with some restrictions is permitted for publication of scientific names of fungi since 1 January 2013.

Sandstone - Dott (1964) Classification Scheme
Dott's classification scheme is based on the mineralogy of framework grains, and on the type of matrix present in between the framework grains.

In this specific classification scheme, Dott has set the boundary between arenite and wackes at 15% matrix. In addition to setting a boundary for what the matrix is, Dott also breaks up the different types framework grains that can be present in a sandstone into three major categories: quartz, feldspar, and lithic grains.

Quartz Arenite are sandstones that contain more than 90% of siliceous grains

Feldspathic Arenites are sandstones that contain less than 90% quartz, and more feldspar than unstable lithic fragments, and minor accessory minerals. Feldspathic sandstones are commonly immature or sub-mature. These sandstones occur in association with cratonic or stable shelf settings. Feldspathic sandstones are derived from granitic-type, primary crystalline, rocks. If the sandstone is dominantly plagioclase, then it is igneous in origin.

Lithic Arenites are characterized by generally high content of unstable lithic fragments

Quartz Wacke are uncommon because quartz arenites are texturally mature to supermature.

Arkose sandstones are more than 25 percent feldspar. The grains tend to be poorly rounded and less well sorted than those of pure quartz sandstones. These feldspar-rich sandstones come from rapidly eroding granitic and metamorphic terrains where chemical weathering is subordinate to physical weathering.

Graywacke sandstones are a heterogeneous mixture of lithic fragments and angular grains of quartz and feldspar, and/or grains surrounded by a fine-grained clay matrix. Much of this matrix is formed by relatively soft fragments, such as shale and some volcanic rocks, that are chemically altered and physically compacted after deep burial of the sandstone formation.

Aeolianite is a rock composed of sand grains that show signs of significant transportation by wind. These have usually been deposited in desert environments. They are commonly extremely well sorted and rich in quartz.

Oolite is more a limestone than a sandstone, but is made of sand-sized carbonate ooids, and is common in saline beaches with gentle wave action.

University - Classification
The definition of a university varies widely even within some countries

Brain-reading - Classification
In classification, a pattern of activity across multiple voxels is used to determine the particular class from which the stimulus was drawn. Many studies have classified visual stimuli, but this approach has also been used to classify cognitive states.

Criticism - Criticism classification
Different kinds of criticisms can be distinguished as types using the following criteria:

Purpose, motive, use or function of criticism ("why" is the criticism being raised, what is its aim).

Form of criticism, language used or medium of expression (in what "style" or format is the criticism presented).

Method of delivery, transmission or communication for the criticism ("how", or by what means, is the criticism conveyed).

Type of critic or the source making the criticism ("from whom" criticism originates).

Context, place, setting or situation for the criticism ("where" is the criticism being made).

Recipients or audience of the criticism, intended or unintended (criticism directed or addressed "to where" or "to whom").

In dealing with criticisms, usually the most important aspects are who makes the criticism, what the criticism is about, and what or whom it is aimed at. It can also make a big difference though whether a criticism is e.g. communicated in person, or whether it is communicated with a letter or telephone message.

For an overview of criticisms from particular political or philosophical perspectives, see Varieties of criticism. For subject-specific information, see the critical pages on art, film, literature, theatre, or architecture.

Marketing research - Classification of marketing research
Problem identification research is undertaken to help identify problems which are, perhaps, not apparent on the surface and yet exist or are likely to arise in the future like company image, market characteristics, sales analysis, short-range forecasting, long range forecasting, and business trends research

The Stanford Research Institute, on the other hand, conducts an annual survey of consumers that is used to classify persons into homogeneous groups for segmentation purposes. The National Purchase Diary panel (NPD) maintains the largest diary panel in the United States.

Standardized services are research studies conducted for different client firms but in a standard way

Customized services offer a wide variety of marketing research services customized to suit a client's specific needs. Each marketing research project is treated uniquely.

Limited-service suppliers specialize in one or a few phases of the marketing research project

Coding and data entry services include editing completed questionnaires, developing a coding scheme, and transcribing the data on to diskettes or magnetic tapes for input into the computer. NRC Data Systems provides such services.

Analytical services include designing and pretesting questionnaires, determining the best means of collecting data, designing sampling plans, and other aspects of the research design. Some complex marketing research projects require knowledge of sophisticated procedures, including specialized experimental designs, and analytical techniques such as conjoint analysis and multidimensional scaling. This kind of expertise can be obtained from firms and consultants specializing in analytical services.

Data analysis services are offered by firms, also known as tab houses, that specialize in computer analysis of quantitative data such as those obtained in large surveys. Initially most data analysis firms supplied only tabulations (frequency counts) and cross tabulations (frequency counts that describe two or more variables simultaneously). With the proliferation of software, many firms now have the capability to analyze their own data, but, data analysis firms are still in demand.

Branded marketing research products and services are specialized data collection and analysis procedures developed to address specific types of marketing research problems. These procedures are patented, given brand names, and marketed like any other branded product.

Memory - Classification by information type
Topographic memory involves the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places. Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic memory. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.

Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of unique and highly emotional events. Remembering where you were or what you were doing when you first heard the news of President Kennedy’s assassination or about 9/11 are examples of flashbulb memories.

Anderson (1976) divides long-term memory into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories.

Memory - Classification by temporal direction
A further major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or whether the content is to be remembered in the future, prospective memory

Information security - Security classification for information
An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information. Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection. This requires information to be assigned a security classification.

The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy. The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification.

Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information.

The Business Model for Information Security enables security professionals to examine security from systems perspective, creating an environment where security can be managed holistically, allowing actual risks to be addressed.

The type of information security classification labels selected and used will depend on the nature of the organization, with examples being:

In the business sector, labels such as: Public, Sensitive, Private, Confidential.

In the government sector, labels such as: Unclassified, Sensitive But Unclassified, Restricted, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents.

All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification of a particular information asset that has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place.

Screw - Mechanical classifications
The numbers stamped on the head of the bolt are referred to the grade of the bolt used in certain application with the strength of a bolt

Ultimate tensile strength is the stress at which the bolt fails

The same type of screw or bolt can be made in many different grades of material

Metamaterial - Classification of electromagnetic metamaterials
Various types of composite material, both electromagnetic and other types are being studied by various research groups worldwide (see all sections and references below). Electromagnetic metamaterials are represented by different classes, as follows:

Laptop - Classification
Full-size Laptop: A laptop large enough to accommodate a "full-size" keyboard (a keyboard with the minimum QWERTY key layout, which is at least 13.5 keys across that are on ¾ (0.750) inch centers, plus some room on both ends for the case)

Netbook: A smaller, lighter, and therefore more portable laptop with less computing power than traditional laptops

Tablet PC: These have touch screens. There are "convertible tablets" with a full keyboard where the screen rotates to be used atop the keyboard, a "hybrid tablet" where the keyboard can be detached from the screen, and "slate" form-factor machines which are usually touch-screen only (although a few older models feature very small keyboards along the sides of the screen.)

Ultra-mobile PC: An ultra-mobile PC (ultra-mobile personal computer or UMPC) is a small form factor version of a pen computer, a class of laptop whose specifications were launched by Microsoft and Intel in spring 2006

Handheld PC: A Handheld PC, or H/PC for short, is a term for a computer built around a form factor which is smaller than any standard laptop computer. It is sometimes referred to as a Palmtop. The first handheld device compatible with desktop IBM personal computers of the time was the Atari Portfolio of Other early models were the Poqet PC of 1989 and the Hewlett Packard HP 95LX of Other DOS compatible hand-held computers also existed.

Rugged: Engineered to operate in tough conditions (mechanical shocks, extreme temperatures, wet and dusty environments, etc.)

Ultrabook: A very thin version of a laptop by definition less than 0.8 inches thick. Most versions of Ultrabooks contain SSD, or Solid-State Drives, instead of the common Laptop Hard Disk Drives. Although this term (like Netbook) was coined and popularized by Intel, one of the most prominent examples is Apple's Macbook Air.

Mining - Corporate classifications
Major companies are considered to have an adjusted annual mining-related revenue of more than US$500 million, with the financial capability to develop a major mine on its own.

Intermediate companies have at least $50 million in annual revenue but less than $500 million.

Junior companies rely on equity financing as their principal means of funding exploration. Juniors are mainly pure exploration companies, but may also produce minimally, and do not have a revenue exceeding US$50 million.

Simple machine - Classification of machines
The identification of simple machines arises from a desire for a systematic method to invent new machines. Therefore, an important concern is how simple machines are combined to make more complex machines. One approach is to attach simple machines in series to obtain compound machines.

However, a more successful strategy was identified by Franz Reuleaux, who collected and studied over 800 elementary machines. He realized that a lever, pulley, and wheel and axle are in essence the same device: a body rotating about a hinge. Similarly, an inclined plane, wedge, and screw are a block sliding on a flat surface.

This realization shows that it is the joints, or the connections that provide movement, that are the primary elements of a machine. Starting with four types of joints, the revolute joint, sliding joint, cam joint and gear joint, and related connections such as cables and belts, it is possible to understand a machine as an assembly of solid parts that connect these joints.

Business cycle - Classification by periods
In 1860 French economist Clement Juglar first claimed the existence of economic cycles 7-11 years long, although he was cautious not to claim any rigid regularity

In the mid-20th century, Schumpeter and others proposed a typology of business cycles according to their periodicity, so that a number of particular cycles were named after their discoverers or proposers:

the Juglar fixed investment cycle of 7–11 years (often identified as 'the' business cycle);

the Kuznets infrastructural investment cycle of 15–25 years (after Simon Kuznets also called building cycle]);

Interest in these different typologies of cycles has waned since the development of modern macroeconomics, which gives little support to the idea of regular periodic cycles.

Nucleon - Quark model classification
In the quark model with SU(2) flavour, the two nucleons are part of the ground state doublet

Nucleon - Quark model classification
The article on isospin provides an explicit expression for the nucleon wave functions in terms of the quark flavour eigenstates.

Homo erectus - Classification and special distinction
Many paleoanthropologists still debate the definition of H

While some have argued (and insisted) that Ernst Mayr's biological species definition cannot be used here to test the above hypotheses, one can, however, examine the amount of morphological cranial variation within known H

The extant model of comparison is very important, and selecting appropriate species can be difficult

The sexual dimorphism between males and females was slightly greater than seen in H. sapiens, with males being about 25% larger than females, but less than that of the earlier Australopithecus genus. The discovery of the skeleton KNM-WT 15000, "Turkana boy" (Homo ergaster), made near Lake Turkana, Kenya by Richard Leakey and Kamoya Kimeu in 1984, is one of the most complete hominid-skeletons discovered, and has contributed greatly to the interpretation of human physiological evolution.

For the remainder of this article, the name Homo erectus will be used to describe a distinct species for the convenience of continuity.

Nanomaterials - Classification
Materials referred to as "nanomaterials" generally fall into two categories: fullerenes, and inorganic nanoparticles. See also Nanomaterials in List of nanotechnology topics

Product (business) - Product classification
A product can be classified as tangible or intangible. A tangible product is a physical object that can be perceived by touch such as a building, vehicle, gadget, or clothing. An intangible product is a product that can only be perceived indirectly such as an insurance policy.

Intangible Data Products can further be classified into Virtual Digital Goods ("VDG") that are virtually located on a computer OS and accessible to users as conventional file types, such as JPG and MP3 files, without requiring further application process or transformational work by programmers, and as such the use may be subject to license and/or rights of digital transfer, and Real Digital Goods ("RDG") that may exist within the presentational elements of a data program independent of a conventional file type, commonly viewed as 3-D objects or a presentational item subject to user control or virtual transfer within the same visual media program platform

A third type in this is services. Services can be broadly classified under intangible products which can be durable or non durable.Services need high quality control, precision and adaptability. The main factor about services as a type of product is that it will not be uniform and will vary according to who is performing, where it is performed and on whom/what it is being performed.

Product (business) - National and international product classifications
Various classification systems for products have been developed for economic statistical purposes. The NAFTA signatories are working on a system that classifies products called NAPCS as a companion to North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The European Union uses a "Classification of Products by Activity" among other product classifications. The United Nations also classifies products for international economic activity reporting.

The Aspinwall Classification System classifies and rates products based on five variables:

Replacement rate (How frequently is the product repurchased?)
Product (business) - National and international product classifications Replacement rate (How frequently is the product repurchased?)

Gross margin (How much profit is obtained from each product?)
Product (business) - National and international product classifications Gross margin (How much profit is obtained from each product?)

Buyer goal adjustment (How flexible are the buyers' purchasing habits with regard to this product?)

Duration of product satisfaction (How long will the product produce benefits for the user?)

Duration of buyer search behavior (How long will consumers shop for the product?)

The National Institute of Governmental Purchasing (NIGP) developed a commodity and services classification system for use by state and local governments, the NIGP Code

ISO 10962 - Sample of Main CFI Classifications
EC Convertible shares DT Medium-term notes

EF Preferred convertible shares DY Money market instruments

EV Preference convertibles shares DM Others (Miscellaneous)

EU Units, i.e. unit trusts/mutual funds/OPCVM/OICVM

RP Purchase rights OM Others

F Futures M Others (Miscellaneous)

FC Commodities futures MM Other assets (Miscellaneous), e.g. Real Estate, Insurance Policies

Holography - Hologram classifications
There are three important properties of a hologram which are defined in this section. A given hologram will have one or other of each of these three properties, e.g. we can have an amplitude modulated thin transmission hologram, or a phase modulated, volume reflection hologram.

Pharmaceutical drug - Classification
Medicines can be classified in various ways, such as by chemical properties, mode or route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects. An elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System (ATC system). The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines.

A sampling of classes of medicine includes:

5. Antiseptics: prevention of germ growth near burns, cuts and wounds

6. Mood stabilizers: lithium and valpromide

10. Tranquilizers: meprobamate, chlorpromazine, reserpine, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, and alprazolam

Craft - Classification
Outline of crafts

Craft - Classification
In English, to describe something as a craft is to describe it as lying somewhere between an art (which relies on talent and technique) and a science (which relies on knowledge). In this sense, the English word craft is roughly equivalent to the ancient Greek term techne. Folk art follows craft traditions, in contrast to fine art or "high art".

Electron - Classification
In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles

Classification of the sciences (Peirce)
His classifications are of interest both as a map for navigating his philosophy and as an accomplished polymath's survey of research in his time

Classification of the sciences (Peirce) - Classifications
It is not clear whether Hjørland includes the classification of mathematics in that characterization.

Classification of the sciences (Peirce) - Taxa
"A Detailed Classification of the Sciences" in Minute Logic (Feb.–Apr. 1902), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 1, paragraphs 203–283

July 1902 application to the Carnegie institution (MS L75)

"An Outline Classification of the Sciences (CP ) in his "A Syllabus of Certain Topics in Logic" (1903), wherein his classifications of the sciences take more or less their final form

However, only in the "Detailed Classification" and the Carnegie application does he discuss the taxa which he used, which were inspired by the biological taxa of Louis Agassiz.

(Carnegie application, July 1902) Examples

Branch of science Branches differ in fundamental purposes. Throughout a branch, there is one same animating motive (though researchers in a branch's different classes seem to live in different worlds). Peirce's three branches (1903): Science of Discovery. Science of Review. Practical Science.

Class of science Classes differ radically in observation. Observations in one class (say physical & psychological sciences) cannot yield the kind of information which another class (say pure mathematics) requires of observation. Throughout a class, researchers feel that they inquire into the same great subject (as kinds of inquiry differ but interconnect). Peirce's three classes of discovery science: Pure mathematics. Cenoscopic philosophy. The special sciences.

Order of science Two orders within one class or subclass may differ hierarchically, one more general, the other more specialized. Throughout an order, researchers pursue the same general kind of inquiry (but deal with different kinds of conceptions). Peirce's 1902 example of various orders: General Physics. Biology. Geology.

Family of science Has special name, journal, society. Studies one group of facts. Researchers understand one another in a general way and naturally associate together. Throughout a family, researchers have the same general conceptions (but differ in skills). Peirce's 1902 example of various families: Astronomy. Geognosy.

Genus of science "I can give no such definitions of genera and species, not having carried my classification of the sciences to these minutiae" (of definitions of taxa; he does use the genus taxon). Throughout the genus, researchers have the same skills (but differ in acquaintance with facts in detail). Peirce's 1902 example of various genera: Optics. Electrics.

Species of science The species is the narrowest division still having societies and journals, each researcher is thoroughly well qualified in all parts of it. Peirce's 1902 example of various species: Entomology. Ichthyology.

Variety of science Researchers devote lives to a variety of science, but not so numerously as to support distinct societies and journals. Peirce's 1902 example of various varieties: Study of Kant. Study of Spinoza.

Classification of the sciences (Peirce) - Sciences
...arranging the results of discovery, beginning with digests, and going on to endeavor to form a philosophy of science. Such is the nature of Humboldt's Cosmos, of Comte's Philosophie positive, and of Spencer's Synthetic Philosophy. The classification of the sciences belongs to this department."

(1) Mathematics – draws necessary conclusions about hypothetical objects

(2) Cenoscopy – philosophy about positive phenomena in general, such as confront a person at every waking moment, rather than special classes, and not settling theoretical issues by special experiences or experiments

(3) Idioscopy – the special sciences, about special classes of positive phenomena, and settling theoretical issues by special experiences or experiments

Thus Peirce ends up framing two fields each of which is philosophy in a sense: cenoscopic philosophy which precedes the special sciences, and synthetic philosophy (that is to say, science of review), which does take advantage of the results of all the sciences of discovery and develops, for instance, classifications of the sciences.

Peirce opens his 1903 classification (the "Syllabus" classification) with a concise statement of method and purpose:

It borrows its idea from Comte's classification; namely, the idea that one science depends upon another for fundamental principles, but does not furnish such principles to that other

The following table is based mostly on Peirce's 1903 classification, which was more or less the final form. But see after the table for discussion of his later remarks on the divisions of logic.

Classes Subclasses Orders Other Taxa (suborders, families, etc.)

C. Mathematics of Continua and Pseudocontinua.

(Note: By "continuum" Peirce meant, until 1908, a continuum of instants (as he called them) beyond any Cantorian aleph's worth. He held that such a continuum was the true subject matter of that which we now call topology, and that the reals, the complex reals, etc., constituted pseudocontinua.)

About positive phenomena in general, such as are available to every person at every waking moment, and not about special classes of phenomena. Does not resort to special experiences or experiments in order to settle theoretical questions. Epistêmy

(Includes the study of the cenopythagorean categories: Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness).

B. Normative Science. i. Esthetics. (Study of the good, the admirable. Peirce reserved the spelling "aesthetics" for the study of artistic beauty.)

ii. Ethics. (Study of right and wrong).

(or Semiotic or Formal Semiotic). (Study of true and false.)

(The presuppositions of reason are the locus of Peirce's truth theory and his fallibilism.)

(or Philosophical or Universal Grammar)

(Includes the classification of signs).

(Includes study of the modes of inference: abduction, induction, and deduction).

(or Speculative Rhetoric,

or Universal or Philosophical Rhetoric).

(Is the locus of Peirce's Pragmatism, and includes study of scientific method).

C. Metaphysics. i. Ontology or General. (Locus of Peirce's Scholastic Realism.)

ii. Psychical or Religious. 1. God.

iii. Physical. (Locus of Peirce's Objective Idealism and his doctrines that physical space, time, and law are continuous, and that chance, mechanical necessity, and creative love are physically real and involve corresponding modes of universal evolution.)

Peirce: "...[theôrics] only resort to special observation to settle some minute details, concerning which the testimony of general experience is possibly insufficient." Chronotheory &

About special classes of positive phenomena. Resorts to special experience or experiments in order to settle theoretical questions. [?]. Physical. i. Nomological or General. i. Molar Physics. Dynamics &

ii. Molecular Physics. Elaterics (elasticity, expansibility) &

Peirce in the 1903 Syllabus classification: "Classificatory physics seems, at present, as a matter of fact, to be divided, quite irrationally and most unequally, into i, Crystallography; ii, Chemistry; iii, Biology." i. Crystallography

(elements, atomic weights, compounds, periodicity, etc.)

or Ethnology. 1. Special Psychology. 1. Individual Psychology. 2. Psychical Heredity.

2. Grammar ("should be a comparative science of forms of composition")

3. Ethnology. 1. Ethnology of Social Developments, customs, laws, religion, and tradition.

2. Art criticism (criticism of military operations, criticism of architecture, etc.)

Classification of the sciences (Peirce) - Logic's divisions later
...I extend logic to embrace all the necessary principles of semeiotic, and I recognize a logic of icons, and a logic of indices, as well as a logic of symbols; and in this last I recognize three divisions: Stecheotic (or stoicheiology), which I formerly called Speculative Grammar; Critic, which I formerly called Logic; and Methodeutic, which I formerly called Speculative Rhetoric

Thus the three main 1903 departments of logic were now sub-departments of the study of the logic of symbols.

I have now sketched my doctrine of Logical Critic, skipping a good deal

with presuppositions of reason,

nature of belief & doubt, etc.).

There in 1911 Peirce does not mention the 1906 division into logics of icons, indices and symbols

On the question of the relationship between Stechiology and the Analytic that seems to have replaced it, note that, in Draft D of Memoir 15 in his 1902 Carnegie Institute application, Peirce said that stechiology, also called grammatica speculativa, amounts to an Erkenntnisslehre, a theory of cognition, provided that that theory is stripped of matter irrelevant and inadmissible in philosophical logic, irrelevant matter such as all truths (for example, the association of ideas) established by psychologists, insofar as the special science of psychology depends on logic, not vice versa

Taxonomy (general) - Taxonomy and mental classification
Folk taxonomies of organisms have been found in large part to agree with scientific classification, at least for the larger and more obvious species, which means that it is not the case that folk taxonomies are based purely on utilitarian characteristics.

Taxonomy (general) - Taxonomy and mental classification
The concept of creating such a "universal language" was frequently examined in the seventeenth century, also notably by the English philosopher John Wilkins in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (1668), from which the classification scheme in Roget's Thesaurus ultimately derives.

ISO/IEC 27001:2005 - Asset Classification
Assets need to be classified in order to provide an appropriate level of protection for a certain category of assets. Information assets need to be classified in terms of its value, requirements and criticality to the business operations of the company. Typical company classification guidelines follow restrictive principles. Some of the common classifications criteria which are used by companies are given below:

This classification applies to any sensitive business information which is intended for use within the company

RESTRICTED: The restricted level of asset information pertains to highly sensitive information to the company; which when disclosed would cause substantial damage to the reputation and competitive position of the company in the market

INTERNAL: This classification refers to asset information that is potentially available to all personnel within the company, but is not public. This can also include information that is restricted to a group or project within the company, but is not designated as “Private” or “Restricted.” Examples of internal information include product design information, system documentation, company employee details, company organizational charts, minutes of department meetings.

PUBLIC: This classification refers to asset information that has been published or obtainable from a published source, e.g. the Internet. Example of public information include published marketing material, company public statements or announcements, published company performance information, published job vacancies.

Self-efficacy - Subclassifications
While self-efficacy is sometimes measured as a whole, as with the General Self-Efficacy Scale, it is also measured in particular functional situations.

Social self-efficacy has been variably defined and measured

Matsushima and Shiomi measured self-efficacy by focusing on self-confidence about social skill in personal relationship, trust in friends, and trust by friends.

Both groups of researchers suggest that social self-efficacy is strongly correlated with shyness and social anxiety.

Academic self-efficacy refers to the belief that one can successfully engage in and complete course-specific academic tasks, such as accomplishing course aims, satisfactorily completing assignments, achieving a passing grade, and meeting the requirements to continue to pursue one's major course of study. Various empirical inquiries have been aimed at measuring academic self-efficacy.

Other areas of self-efficacy that have been identified for study include teacher self-efficacy and technological self-efficacy.

Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard - Wireless LAN and CDE classification
PCI DSS wireless guidelines classify CDEs into three scenarios depending on how wireless LANs are deployed.

No Known WLAN AP inside or outside the CDE: The organization has not deployed any WLAN AP. In this scenario, 3 minimum scanning requirements (Sections 11.1, 11.4 and 12.9) of the PCI DSS apply.

Known WLAN AP outside the CDE: The organization has deployed WLAN APs outside the CDE. These WLAN APs are segmented from the CDE by a firewall. There are no known WLAN APs inside the CDE. In this scenario, 3 minimum scanning requirements (Sections 11.1, 11.4 and 12.9) of the PCI DSS apply.

Known WLAN AP inside the CDE: The organization has deployed WLAN APs inside the CDE. In this scenario, three minimum scanning requirements (Sections 11.1, 11.4 and 12.9), as well as six secure deployment requirements (Sections 2.1.1, 4.1.1, 9.1.3, , 10.6 and 12.3) of the PCI DSS apply.

Key sections of PCI DSS 1.2 that are relevant for wireless security are classified and defined below.

Records management - Records classification
Records managers use classification or categorization of record types as a means of working with records. Such classifications assist in functions such as creation, organization, storage, retrieval, movement, and destruction of records.

At the highest level of classification are physical versus electronic records.

Physical records are those records, such as paper, that can be touched and which take up physical space.

Electronic records, also often referred to as digital records, are those records that are generated with and used by information technology devices.

Classification of records is achieved through the design, maintenance, and application of taxonomies, which allow records managers to perform functions such as the categorization, tagging, segementing, or grouping of records according to various traits.

Software design pattern - Classification and list
Another classification has also introduced the notion of architectural design pattern that may be applied at the architecture level of the software such as the Model–View–Controller pattern.

Abstract factory Provide an interface for creating families of related or dependent objects without specifying their concrete classes. Yes Yes N/A

Builder Separate the construction of a complex object from its representation allowing the same construction process to create various representations. Yes No N/A

Factory method Define an interface for creating a single object, but let subclasses decide which class to instantiate. Factory Method lets a class defer instantiation to subclasses (dependency injection). Yes Yes N/A

Lazy initialization Tactic of delaying the creation of an object, the calculation of a value, or some other expensive process until the first time it is needed. This pattern appears in the GoF catalog as "virtual proxy", an implementation strategy for the Proxy pattern. Yes No PoEAA

Multiton Ensure a class has only named instances, and provide global point of access to them. No No N/A

Object pool Avoid expensive acquisition and release of resources by recycling objects that are no longer in use. Can be considered a generalisation of connection pool and thread pool patterns. No No N/A

Prototype Specify the kinds of objects to create using a prototypical instance, and create new objects by copying this prototype. Yes No N/A

Resource acquisition is initialization Ensure that resources are properly released by tying them to the lifespan of suitable objects. No No N/A

Singleton Ensure a class has only one instance, and provide a global point of access to it. Yes Yes N/A

Adapter or Wrapper or Translator. Convert the interface of a class into another interface clients expect. An adapter lets classes work together that could not otherwise because of incompatible interfaces. The enterprise integration pattern equivalent is the translator. Yes Yes N/A

Bridge Decouple an abstraction from its implementation allowing the two to vary independently. Yes Yes N/A

Composite Compose objects into tree structures to represent part-whole hierarchies. Composite lets clients treat individual objects and compositions of objects uniformly. Yes Yes N/A

Decorator Attach additional responsibilities to an object dynamically keeping the same interface. Decorators provide a flexible alternative to subclassing for extending functionality. Yes Yes N/A

Facade Provide a unified interface to a set of interfaces in a subsystem. Facade defines a higher-level interface that makes the subsystem easier to use. Yes Yes N/A

Flyweight Use sharing to support large numbers of similar objects efficiently. Yes No N/A

Front Controller The pattern relates to the design of Web applications. It provides a centralized entry point for handling requests. No Yes N/A

Module Group several related elements, such as classes, singletons, methods, globally used, into a single conceptual entity. No No N/A

Proxy Provide a surrogate or placeholder for another object to control access to it. Yes No N/A

Blackboard Generalized observer, which allows multiple readers and writers. Communicates information system-wide. No No N/A

Chain of responsibility Avoid coupling the sender of a request to its receiver by giving more than one object a chance to handle the request. Chain the receiving objects and pass the request along the chain until an object handles it. Yes No N/A

Command Encapsulate a request as an object, thereby letting you parameterize clients with different requests, queue or log requests, and support undoable operations. Yes No N/A

Interpreter Given a language, define a representation for its grammar along with an interpreter that uses the representation to interpret sentences in the language. Yes No N/A

Iterator Provide a way to access the elements of an aggregate object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation. Yes Yes N/A

Mediator Define an object that encapsulates how a set of objects interact. Mediator promotes loose coupling by keeping objects from referring to each other explicitly, and it lets you vary their interaction independently. Yes No N/A

Memento Without violating encapsulation, capture and externalize an object's internal state allowing the object to be restored to this state later. Yes No N/A

Null object Avoid null references by providing a default object. No No N/A

Observer or Publish/subscribe Define a one-to-many dependency between objects where a state change in one object results in all its dependents being notified and updated automatically. Yes Yes N/A

Servant Define common functionality for a group of classes No No N/A

Specification Recombinable business logic in a Boolean fashion No No N/A

Strategy Define a family of algorithms, encapsulate each one, and make them interchangeable. Strategy lets the algorithm vary independently from clients that use it. Yes Yes N/A

Template method Define the skeleton of an algorithm in an operation, deferring some steps to subclasses. Template method lets subclasses redefine certain steps of an algorithm without changing the algorithm's structure. Yes Yes N/A

Visitor Represent an operation to be performed on the elements of an object structure. Visitor lets you define a new operation without changing the classes of the elements on which it operates. Yes No N/A

Active Object Decouples method execution from method invocation that reside in their own thread of control. The goal is to introduce concurrency, by using asynchronous method invocation and a scheduler for handling requests. Yes N/A

Balking Only execute an action on an object when the object is in a particular state. No N/A

Binding properties Combining multiple observers to force properties in different objects to be synchronized or coordinated in some way. No N/A

Double-checked locking Reduce the overhead of acquiring a lock by first testing the locking criterion (the 'lock hint') in an unsafe manner; only if that succeeds does the actual lock proceed.

Can be unsafe when implemented in some language/hardware combinations. It can therefore sometimes be considered an anti-pattern.

Event-based asynchronous Addresses problems with the asynchronous pattern that occur in multithreaded programs. No N/A

Guarded suspension Manages operations that require both a lock to be acquired and a precondition to be satisfied before the operation can be executed. No N/A

Join Join-patterns provides a way to write concurrent, parallel and distributed programs by message passing. Compared to the use of threads and locks, this is a high level programming model. No N/A

Lock One thread puts a "lock" on a resource, preventing other threads from accessing or modifying it. No PoEAA

Monitor object An object whose methods are subject to mutual exclusion, thus preventing multiple objects from erroneously trying to use it at the same time. Yes N/A

Reactor A reactor object provides an asynchronous interface to resources that must be handled synchronously. Yes N/A

Read-write lock Allows concurrent read access to an object, but requires exclusive access for write operations. No N/A

Scheduler Explicitly control when threads may execute single-threaded code. No N/A

Thread pool A number of threads are created to perform a number of tasks, which are usually organized in a queue. Typically, there are many more tasks than threads. Can be considered a special case of the object pool pattern. No N/A

CCD – Community Choice Aggregation (electricity)
Public utility - Common classifications of utilities in the United States CCD – Community Choice Aggregation (electricity)

CWD – county water district
Public utility - Common classifications of utilities in the United States CWD – county water district

MWA – municipal water authority
Public utility - Common classifications of utilities in the United States MWA – municipal water authority

WSC – water supply corporation
Public utility - Common classifications of utilities in the United States WSC – water supply corporation

Exploit (computer security) - Classification
Another classification is by the action against vulnerable system: unauthorized data access, arbitrary code execution, denial of service.Many exploits are designed to provide superuser-level access to a computer system

Intrusion prevention system - Classifications
Intrusion prevention systems can be classified into four different types:

Network-based intrusion prevention system (NIPS): monitors the entire network for suspicious traffic by analyzing protocol activity.

Wireless intrusion prevention systems (WIPS): monitor a wireless network for suspicious traffic by analyzing wireless networking protocols.

Network behavior analysis (NBA): examines network traffic to identify threats that generate unusual traffic flows, such as distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, certain forms of malware and policy violations.

Host-based intrusion prevention system (HIPS): an installed software package which monitors a single host for suspicious activity by analyzing events occurring within that host.

Verification and validation (software) - Classification of methods
In mission-critical systems, where flawless performance is absolutely necessary, formal methods may be used to ensure the correct operation of a system. However, often for non-mission-critical systems, formal methods prove to be very costly and an alternative method of V&V must be sought out. In such cases, syntactic methods are often used.

Nuclear reactor - Classifications
Nuclear Reactors are classified by several methods; a brief outline of these classification methods is provided.

Nuclear reactor - Classification by type of nuclear reaction
Nuclear fission. All commercial power reactors are based on nuclear fission. They generally use uranium and its product plutonium as nuclear fuel, though a thorium fuel cycle is also possible. Fission reactors can be divided roughly into two classes, depending on the energy of the neutrons that sustain the fission chain reaction:

Thermal reactors (the most common type of nuclear reactor) use slowed or thermal neutrons to keep up the fission of their fuel

Fast neutron reactors use fast neutrons to cause fission in their fuel

Nuclear fusion. Fusion Power is an experimental technology, generally with hydrogen as fuel. While not suitable for power production, Farnsworth-Hirsch fusors are used to produce neutron radiation.

Nuclear reactor - Classification by moderator material
Heavy-water reactors (Used in Canada.)

Light-water-moderated reactors (LWRs)

Light-element-moderated reactors. These reactors are moderated by lithium or beryllium.

Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are moderated by a light elements such as lithium or beryllium, which are constituents of the coolant/fuel matrix salts LiF and BeF2.

Liquid metal cooled reactors, such as one whose coolant is a mixture of Lead and Bismuth, may use BeO as a moderator.

Organically moderated reactors (OMR) use biphenyl and terphenyl as moderator and coolant.

Nuclear reactor - Classification by coolant
Water cooled reactor. There are 104 operating reactors in the United States. Of these, 69 are pressurized water reactors (PWR), and 35 are boiling water reactors (BWR).

Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Pressurized water reactors constitute the large majority of all Western nuclear power plants.

A primary characteristic of PWRs is a pressurizer, a specialized pressure vessel

Pressurised heavy water reactors are a subset of pressurized water reactors, sharing the use of a pressurized, isolated heat transport loop, but using heavy water as coolant and moderator for the greater neutron economies it offers.

BWRs are characterized by boiling water around the fuel rods in the lower portion of a primary reactor pressure vessel

Liquid metal cooled reactor. Since water is a moderator, it cannot be used as a coolant in a fast reactor. Liquid metal coolants have included sodium, NaK, lead, lead-bismuth eutectic, and in early reactors, mercury.

Sodium-cooled fast reactor

Gas cooled reactors are cooled by a circulating inert gas, often helium in high-temperature designs, while carbon dioxide has been used in past British and French nuclear power plants. Nitrogen has also been used. Utilization of the heat varies, depending on the reactor. Some reactors run hot enough that the gas can directly power a gas turbine. Older designs usually run the gas through a heat exchanger to make steam for a steam turbine.

Molten salt reactors (MSRs) are cooled by circulating a molten salt, typically a eutectic mixture of fluoride salts, such as FLiBe. In a typical MSR, the coolant is also used as a matrix in which the fissile material is dissolved.

Nuclear reactor - Classification by generation
Generation I reactor (early prototypes, research reactors, non-commercial power producing reactors)

Generation II reactor (most current nuclear power plants 1965–1996)

Generation III reactor (evolutionary improvements of existing designs 1996-now)

Generation IV reactor (technologies still under development unknown start date, possibly 2030)

The "Gen IV"-term was dubbed by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) for developing new plant types in In 2003, the French Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique (CEA) was the first to refer to Gen II types in Nucleonics Week; . First mentioning of Gen III was also in 2000 in conjunction with the launch of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) plans.

Nuclear reactor - Classification by phase of fuel
Gas fueled (theoretical)

Nuclear reactor - Classification by use
Nuclear power plants including small modular reactors

Propulsion, see nuclear propulsion

Nuclear marine propulsion

Various proposed forms of rocket propulsion

Heat for domestic and industrial heating

Hydrogen production for use in a hydrogen economy

Production reactors for transmutation of elements

Breeder reactors are capable of producing more fissile material than they consume during the fission chain reaction (by converting fertile U-238 to Pu-239, or Th-232 to U-233). Thus, a uranium breeder reactor, once running, can be re-fueled with natural or even depleted uranium, and a thorium breeder reactor can be re-fueled with thorium; however, an initial stock of fissile material is required.

Creating various radioactive isotopes, such as americium for use in smoke detectors, and cobalt-60, molybdenum-99 and others, used for imaging and medical treatment.

Production of materials for nuclear weapons such as weapons-grade plutonium

Providing a source of neutron radiation (for example with the pulsed Godiva device) and positron radiation (e.g. neutron activation analysis and potassium-argon dating)

Research reactor: Typically reactors used for research and training, materials testing, or the production of radioisotopes for medicine and industry. These are much smaller than power reactors or those propelling ships, and many are on university campuses. There are about 280 such reactors operating, in 56 countries. Some operate with high-enriched uranium fuel, and international efforts are underway to substitute low-enriched fuel.

Software engineer - Regulatory classification
The use of the title "Software Engineer" is protected by law in Iceland. Icelandic law state that a permission must be obtained from the Minister of Industry, prior to use of the title. The title is only awarded to those who have obtained a Master's degree in Software Engineering from a recognised higher educational institution.

The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies computer software engineers as a subcategory of "computer specialists", along with occupations such as computer scientist, programmer, and network administrator. The BLS classifies all other engineering disciplines, including computer hardware engineers, as "engineers".

The U.K. has seen the alignment of the Information Technology Professional and the Engineering Professionals.

Software engineering in Canada has seen some contests in the courts over the use of the title "Software Engineer"

Some of the states in the United States regulate the use of terms such as "computer engineer" and even "software engineer". These states include Texas and Florida. There is also a new PE (Professional Engineer) exam beginning in April 2013 for Software Engineering specifically as the process of tougher regulation moves forward.

In New Zealand, IPENZ, the professional engineering organization entrusted by the New Zealand government with legal power to license and regulate chartered engineers (CPEng), recognizes software engineering as a legitimate branch of professional engineering and accepts application of software engineers to obtain chartered status provided he or she has a tertiary degree of approved subjects. Software Engineering is included but Computer Science is normally not.

In Canada, the use of the job title "Engineer" is controlled in each province by self-regulating professional engineering organizations, often aligned with geologists and geophysicists, and tasked with enforcement of the governing legislation

Some of the United States of America regulate the use of terms such as "computer engineer" and even "software engineer". These states include at least Texas and Florida. Texas even goes so far as to ban anyone from writing any real-time code without an engineering license.

ACM Computing Classification System

ACM Computing Classification System
The ACM Computing Classification System is a subject classification system for computer science devised by the Association for Computing Machinery. The system is comparable to the Mathematics Subject Classification in scope, aims, and structure, being used by the various ACM journals to organise subjects by area.

ACM Computing Classification System - History
The system has gone through seven revisions, the first version being published in 1964, and revised versions appearing in 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991, 1998, and the now current version in 2012.

ACM Computing Classification System - Structure
The ACM Computing Classification System, Version 2012, has a revolutionary change in some areas, for example, in Software that now is called "Software and its engineering" which has three main subjects:

Software organization and properties. This subject addresses the programming language theory and, in a broad sense, what software is. Software notations and tools. This subject classify some practical concerns about software development. Software creation and management. This subject is which we know traditionally as Software Engineering (SE), but SE as category as missed.

The ACM Computing Classification System,version 1998, is hierarchically structured in four levels: three outer levels, coded by capital letters and numbers, and an uncoded fourth level of subject descriptors. Thus, for example, one branch of the hierarchy contains

I. Computing Methodologies, which contains:

Each top-level category has two standard subcategories: "general", coded with a "0", and "miscellaneous", coded with a "m". For instance, I.0 denotes the "general" subcategory of Computing Methodologies, while I.m denotes its miscellaneous subcategory. Several subtopics are listed as uncoded subject descriptors in these standard subcategories.

Medical device - Classification
The regulatory authorities recognize different classes of medical devices, based on their design complexity, their use characteristics, and their potential for harm if misused. Each country or region defines these categories in different ways. The authorities also recognize that some devices are provided in combination with drugs, and regulation of these combination products takes this factor into consideration.

Orthogonal Defect Classification
Orthogonal Defect Classification (ODC) turns semantic information in the software defect stream into a measurement on the process

Flynn's taxonomy - Classifications
The four classifications defined by Flynn are based upon the number of concurrent instruction (or control) and data streams available in the architecture:

Single Instruction, Single Data stream (SISD)

A sequential computer which exploits no parallelism in either the instruction or data streams. Single control unit (CU) fetches single Instruction Stream (IS) from memory. The CU then generates appropriate control signals to direct single processing element (PE) to operate on single Data Stream (DS) i.e. one operation at a time.

Examples of SISD architecture are the traditional uniprocessor machines like a PC (currently manufactured PCs have multiple processors) or old mainframes.

Single Instruction, Multiple Data streams (SIMD)

A computer which exploits multiple data streams against a single instruction stream to perform operations which may be naturally parallelized. For example, an array processor or GPU.

Multiple Instruction, Single Data stream (MISD)

Multiple instructions operate on a single data stream. Uncommon architecture which is generally used for fault tolerance. Heterogeneous systems operate on the same data stream and must agree on the result. Examples include the Space Shuttle flight control computer.

Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data streams (MIMD)

Multiple autonomous processors simultaneously executing different instructions on different data. Distributed systems are generally recognized to be MIMD architectures; either exploiting a single shared memory space or a distributed memory space. A multi-core superscalar processor is an MIMD processor.

Flynn's taxonomy - Diagram comparing classifications
Visually, these four architectures are shown below where each "PU" is a central processing unit:

Evaluation - Classification of approaches
Two classifications of evaluation approaches by House and Stufflebeam and Webster can be combined into a manageable number of approaches in terms of their unique and important underlying principles.

House considers all major evaluation approaches to be based on a common ideology entitled liberal democracy

These ethical positions have corresponding epistemologies—philosophies for obtaining knowledge

Stufflebeam and Webster place approaches into one of three groups, according to their orientation toward the role of values and ethical consideration

When the above concepts are considered simultaneously, fifteen evaluation approaches can be identified in terms of epistemology, major perspective (from House), and orientation

Prison - Inmate security classifications
Below are some different examples of prison classifications from around the world.

In the United States, "jail" and "prison" refer to separate levels of incarceration; generally speaking, jails are county or city administrated institutions which house both inmates awaiting trial on the local level and convicted misdemeanants serving a term of one year or less, while prisons are state or federal facilities housing convicted felons serving a term of more than one year

Prisons are given security classifications depending on the prisoners they are designed to hold

Lower-security prisons are often designed with less restrictive features, confining prisoners at night in smaller locked dormitories or even cottage or cabin-like housing while permitting them freer movement around the grounds to work or activities during the day.

Vulnerability (computing) - Classification
Vulnerabilities are classified according to the asset class they are related to:

susceptibility to unprotected storage

unprotected communication lines

insecure network architecture

inadequate recruiting process

unreliable power source

lack of regular audits

Hypercholesterolemia - Classification
Classically, hypercholesterolemia was categorized by lipoprotein electrophoresis and the Fredrickson classification. Newer methods, such as "lipoprotein subclass analysis" have offered significant improvements in understanding the connection with atherosclerosis progression and clinical consequences.

Hypercholesterolemia - Classification
If the hypercholesterolemia is hereditary (familial hypercholesterolemia), there is more often a family history of premature, earlier onset atherosclerosis.

Breast cancer - Classification
Breast cancers are classified by several grading systems. Each of these influences the prognosis and can affect treatment response. Description of a breast cancer optimally includes all of these factors.

Histopathology

Grade

Stage. Breast cancer staging using the TNM system is based on the size of the tumor (T), whether or not the tumor has spread to the lymph nodes (N) in the armpits, and whether the tumor has metastasized (M) (i.e. spread to a more distant part of the body). Larger size, nodal spread, and metastasis have a larger stage number and a worse prognosis.

Stage 0 is a pre-cancerous or marker condition, either ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) or lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS).

Where available, imaging studies may be employed as part of the staging process in select cases to look for signs of metastatic cancer. However, in cases of breast cancer with low risk for metastasis, the risks associated with PET scans, CT scans, or bone scans outweigh the possible benefits, as these procedures expose the patient to a substantial amount of potentially dangerous ionizing radiation.

Receptor status. Breast cancer cells have receptors on their surface and in their cytoplasm and nucleus. Chemical messengers such as hormones bind to receptors, and this causes changes in the cell. Breast cancer cells may or may not have three important receptors: estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and HER2.

ER+ cancer cells (that is, cancer cells that have estrogen receptors) depend on estrogen for their growth, so they can be treated with drugs to block estrogen effects (e.g

DNA assays. DNA testing of various types including DNA microarrays have compared normal cells to breast cancer cells. The specific changes in a particular breast cancer can be used to classify the cancer in several ways, and may assist in choosing the most effective treatment for that DNA type.

Lamb and mutton - Classifications and nomenclature
The definitions for lamb, hogget and mutton vary considerably between countries.

Lamb — a young sheep under 12 months of age which does not have any permanent incisor teeth in wear.

Mutton — a female (ewe) or castrated male (wether) sheep having more than two permanent incisors in wear.

In Australia and Saudi Arabia the definitions are extended to include ewes and rams, as well as being stricter on the definition for lamb, which is:

Lamb — 0 permanent incisors; female or castrate entire male ovine 0–12 months (note that the Australian definition requires 0 permanent incisors, whereas the New Zealand definition allows 0 incisors 'in wear'.)

Under current United States federal regulations, only the term 'lamb' is used:

Lamb — ovine animals of any age, including ewes and rams

The term 'mutton' is rare and 'hogget' unknown in the United States.

Younger lambs are smaller and more tender. Mutton is meat from a sheep over two years old, and has less tender flesh. In general, the darker the colour, the older the animal. Baby lamb meat will be pale pink, while regular lamb is pinkish-red.

Milk-fed lamb — meat from an unweaned lamb, typically 4-6 weeks old and weighing 5.5 to 8 kg; this is almost unavailable in countries such as the USA and the UK, where it is considered uneconomic

Young lamb — a milk-fed lamb between six and eight weeks old

Spring lamb — a milk-fed lamb, usually three to five months old, born in late winter or early spring and sold usually before July 1 (in the northern hemisphere).

Sucker lambs — a term used in Australia — includes young milk-fed lambs, as well as slightly older lambs up to about seven months of age which are also still dependent on their mothers for milk. Carcases from these lambs usually weigh between 14 and 30 kg. Older weaned lambs which have not yet matured to become mutton are known as old-season lambs.

Lamb — a young sheep that is less than one year old

Yearling lamb — a young sheep between 12 and 24 months old

Saltbush mutton - a term used in Australia for the meat of mature Merinos which have been allowed to graze on atriplex plants

Salt marsh lamb (also known as 'saltmarsh lamb' or by its French name, agneau de pré-salé) is the meat of sheep which graze on salt marsh in coastal estuaries that are washed by the tides and support a range of salt-tolerant grasses and herbs, such as samphire, sparta grass, sorrel and sea lavender

Saltgrass Lamb - A term used to describe a type of lamb exclusive to Flinders Island (Australia). The pastures on the island have been found to have a higher salt content than normal, leading to a beautiful flavour and texture found nowhere else. Similar to the Salt marsh lamb.

Hepatology - Disease classification
3.National Library of Medicine Catalogue (NLM classification 2007):

Spectroscopy - Classification of methods
Spectroscopy is a sufficiently broad field that many sub-disciplines exist, each with numerous implementations of specific spectroscopic techniques. The various implementations and techniques can be classified in several ways.

Cyanobacteria - Classification
Historically, bacteria were first classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which along with the Schizophyceae (blue green algae/Cyanobacteria) formed the phylum Schizophyta. then in the phylum Monera in the kingdom Protista by Haeckel in 1866, comprising Protogens, Protamaeba, Vampyrella, Protomonae and Vibrio, but not Nostoc and other cyanobacteria, which were classified with algae later reclassified as the Prokaryotes by Chatton.

The cyanobacteria were traditionally classified by morphology into five sections, referred to by the numerals I-V

The orders Chroococcales, Gloeobacterales, Nostocales, Oscillatoriales, Pleurocapsales and Stigonematales

The genera Halospirulina, Planktothricoides, Prochlorococcus, Prochloron, Prochlorothrix.

Hydrogenase - Structural classification
Hydrogenases are classified as one of the following three types based on metal atoms composing the active site: [NiFe], [FeFe], and [Fe]-only

Hydrogenase - Biochemical classification
EC hydrogen dehydrogenase (hydrogen:NAD+ oxidoreductase)

EC hydrogen dehydrogenase (NADP) (hydrogen:NADPH+ oxidoreductase)

EC cytochrome-c3 hydrogenase (hydrogen:ferricytochrome-c3 oxidoreductase)

EC ferredoxin hydrogenase (hydrogen:ferredoxin oxidoreductase)

EC coenzyme F420 hydrogenase (hydrogen:coenzyme F420 oxidoreductase)

EC hydrogenase (acceptor) (hydrogen:acceptor oxidoreductase)

EC hydrogen:quinone oxidoreductase

H2 + menaquinone = menaquinol

EC ,10-methenyltetrahydromethanopterin hydrogenase (hydrogen:5,10-methenyltetrahydromethanopterin oxidoreductase)

EC Methanosarcina-phenazine hydrogenase [hydrogen:2-(2,3-dihydropentaprenyloxy)phenazine oxidoreductase]

Blood pressure - Classification
The table on the right shows the classification of blood pressure adopted by the American Heart Association for adults who are 18 years and older. It assumes the values are a result of averaging blood pressure readings measured at two or more visits to the doctor.

Blood pressure - Classification
In the UK, blood pressures are usually categorised into three groups; low (90/60 or lower), high (140/90 or higher), and normal (values above 90/60 and below 130/80).

Microorganism - Classification and structure
Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. Bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including most protists, some fungi, as well as some animals and plants. Viruses are generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses.

Sleep medicine - Scope and classification
Competence in sleep medicine requires an understanding of a plethora of very diverse disorders, many of which present with similar symptoms such as excessive daytime sleepiness, which, in the absence of volitional sleep deprivation, "is almost inevitably caused by an identifiable and treatable sleep disorder," such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, Kleine-Levin syndrome, menstrual-related hypersomnia, idiopathic recurrent stupor, or circadian rhythm disturbances

The present classification system in fact follows the groupings suggested by Nathaniel Kleitman, the "father of sleep research," in his seminal 1939 book Sleep and Wakefulness.

The revised ICSD, ICSD-R, placed the primary sleep disorders in the subgroups (1) dyssomnias, which include those that produce complaints of insomnia or excessive sleepiness, and (2) the parasomnias, which do not produce those primary complaints but intrude into or occur during sleep

MeSH, Medical Subject Headings, a service of the US National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health, uses similar broad categories: (1) dyssomnias, including narcolepsy, apnea, and the circadian rhythm sleep disorders, (2) parasomnias, which include, among others, bruxism (tooth-grinding), sleepwalking and bedwetting, and (3) sleep disorders caused by medical or psychiatric conditions

DSM-IV-TR, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision, using the same diagnostic codes as the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), divides sleep disorders into three groups: (1) primary sleep disorders, both the dyssomnias and the parasomnias, presumed to result from an endogenous disturbance in sleep-wake generating or timing mechanisms, (2) those secondary to mental disorders and (3) those related to a general medical condition or substance abuse.

Recent thinking opens for a common cause for mood and sleep disorders occurring in the same patient; a 2010 review states that, in humans, "single nucleotide polymorphisms in Clock and other clock genes have been associated with depression" and that the "evidence that mood disorders are associated with disrupted or at least inappropriately timed circadian rhythms suggests that treatment strategies or drugs aimed at restoring 'normal' circadian rhythmicity may be clinically useful."

Superconductivity - Classification
Superconductor classification

There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified. The most common are:

Response to a magnetic field: A superconductor can be Type I, meaning it has a single critical field, above which all superconductivity is lost; or Type II, meaning it has two critical fields, between which it allows partial penetration of the magnetic field.

By theory of operation: It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise.

By critical temperature: A superconductor is generally considered high temperature if it reaches a superconducting state when cooled using liquid nitrogen – that is, at only Tc > 77 K) – or low temperature if more aggressive cooling techniques are required to reach its critical temperature.

By material: Superconductor material classes include chemical elements (e.g. mercury or lead), alloys (such as niobium-titanium, germanium-niobium, and niobium nitride), ceramics (YBCO and magnesium diboride), or organic superconductors (fullerenes and carbon nanotubes; though perhaps these examples should be included among the chemical elements, as they are composed entirely of carbon).

Cluster chemistry - History and classification
The development of cluster chemistry occurred contemporaneously along several independent lines, which are roughly classified in the following sections. The first synthetic metal cluster was probably calomel, which was known in India already in the 12th century. The existence of a mercury to mercury bond in this compound was established in the beginning of the 20th century.

Psychiatry - Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry
However, Kraepelin was criticized for considering schizophrenia as a biological illness in the absence of any detectable histologic or anatomic abnormalities.:221 While Kraepelin tried to find organic causes of mental illness, he adopted many theses of positivist medicine, but he favoured the precision of nosological classification over the indefiniteness of etiological causation as his basic mode of psychiatric explanation.

Psychiatry - Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry
Following Sigmund Freud's death, ideas stemming from psychoanalytic theory also began to take root. The psychoanalytic theory became popular among psychiatrists because it allowed the patients to be treated in private practices instead of warehoused in asylums. By the 1970s the psychoanalytic school of thought had become marginalized within the field.

Biological psychiatry reemerged during this time
Psychiatry - Disease classification and rebirth of biological psychiatry Biological psychiatry reemerged during this time

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery - Classification
Medical degrees differ from other undergraduate degrees in that they are professional qualifications which lead holders to enter a particular career upon receipt

Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery are usually awarded as general/ordinary degrees, not as honours degrees, and as such the graduate is not classified as for honours degrees in other subjects

More often, it is possible to study one subject for an extra year for an intercalated honours degree

Emotion - Classification
A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions

Emotion - Classification
The classification of emotions has mainly been researched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first viewpoint is that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings.

Classifier (mathematics) - Binary and multiclass classification
ISBN Since many classification methods have been developed specifically for binary classification, multiclass classification often requires the combined use of multiple binary classifiers.

Firm - Classifications
* Agriculture and mining businesses produce raw material, such as plants or minerals.

* Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profits through investment and management of Capital (economics)|capital.

* Information businesses generate profits primarily from the sale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and internet and software companies.

* Manufacturers produce product (business)|products, from raw materials or from component parts, then sell their products at a profit. Companies that make tangible good (economics)|goods such as cars, clothing or pipes are considered manufacturers.

* Real estate businesses sell, rent, and develop properties including land, residential homes, and other buildings.

* Retailers and distribution (business)|distributors act as middlemen and get goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumers, and make their profits by marking up their price. Most stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers.

* Service Sector|Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically charge for labor or other services provided to government, consumers, or other businesses. Interior decorators, consulting firms and even entertainers are service businesses.

* Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals to their destinations for a fee.

* Utilities produce public services such as electricity or sewage treatment, usually under a government charter.

Black hat hacking - Classifications
Eric S

Black hat hacking - Classifications
According to Ralph D. Clifford, a cracker or cracking is to gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system. These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities.

Instruction (computer science) - Classification of instruction sets
A complex instruction set computer (CISC) has many specialized instructions, which may only be rarely used in practical programs

Contract - Classification of terms
Contractual terms are classified differently depending upon the context or jurisdiction

In specific circumstances these terms are used differently

In the United Kingdom the courts determine whether a term is a condition or warranty; for example, an actress' obligation to perform the opening night of a theatre|theatrical production is a condition,Poussard v

Virus - Classification
As such, the Baltimore Classification is used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy.

Virus - ICTV classification
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. The 7th lCTV Report formalised for the first time the concept of the virus species as the lowest taxon (group) in a branching hierarchy of viral taxa.Fields p. 27

* As defined therein, a virus species is a polythetic class of viruses that constitute a replicating lineage and occupy a particular ecological niche

The general taxonomic structure is as follows:

In the current (2011) ICTV taxonomy, six orders have been established, the Caudovirales, Herpesvirales, Mononegavirales, Nidovirales, Picornavirales and Tymovirales

* This Excel file contains the official ICTV Master Species list for 2009 and lists all approved virus taxa. This is version 10 of the MSL published on August 24, Retrieved on December 24, 2011

Virus - Baltimore classification
The Nobel Prize-winning biologist David Baltimore devised the Virus classification#Baltimore classification|Baltimore classification system. The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.

This classification places viruses into seven groups:

As an example of viral classification, the chicken pox virus, varicella zoster (VZV), belongs to the order Herpesvirales, family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, and genus Varicellovirus. VZV is in Group I of the Baltimore Classification because it is a dsDNA virus that does not use reverse transcriptase.

Tax haven - Classification
Corporations, in order to achieve effective tax avoidance, use multiple types of tax havens. Three types of tax haven types form a Dutch Sandwich:Jesse Drucker (2010): The Tax Haven that is Saving Google Billions; Bloomberg Business Week, 21 Oct

# Primary taxhavens: the location where financial capital winds up. Subsidiary shell companies there have obtained rights to collect profits from corporate intellectual property (IP) by transfers from their parent.

# Semi-taxhavens: locations that produce goods for sale primarily outside of their territorial boundaries and have flexible regulations to encourage job growth, as free trade zones, territorial-only taxation, and similar inducements.

# Conduit taxhavens: locations where income from sales, primarily made outside their boundaries, is collected, and then distributed. Semi-taxhavens are reimbursed for actual product costs, perhaps with a commodity markup (business)|markup. The remaining profits are transferred to the primary taxhaven, because it holds rights to profits due to the corporate IP. By matching outflow to income they do not retain capital and their role, while crucial, remains invisible.

Large multinational corporations may have dozen of such tax haven entities interacting with each other. Each haven can claim that it does not satisfy definitions that attempt to place all tax havens into a single class.Gio Wiederhold (2013): Valuing Intellectual Capital, Multinationals and Taxhavens; Management for Professionals, Springer Verlag Even increased transparency does not change the effectiveness of corporate tax avoidance.

Taxation in the United States - Classification
All goods that are not exempt are subject to duty computed according to the Harmonized Tariff Schedule published by CBP and the U.S. International Trade Commission. This lengthy scheduleThe in .pdf exceeds 3,000 pages, including country-specific rules and annotations. provides rates of duty for each class of goods. Most goods are classified based on the nature of the goods, though some classifications are based on use.

Guru - Classification of gurus
In his book about neo-Hindu movements in (for example Wilmer) the Netherlands, Kranenborg distinguishes four types of gurus in India:

#the spiritual advisor for higher caste Hindus who also performs traditional rituals and who is not connected to a temple (thus not a priest);

#the enlightened master who derives his authority from his experience, such as achieving moksha|enlightenment. This type appears in bhakti movements and in tantra and asks for unquestioning obedience, and can have Western followers. Westerners can even become one, as have, for example Andrew Cohen (spiritual teacher)|Andrew Cohen, and Isaac Shapiro.

#the Avatar, a guru who considers himself to be an incarnation of God, God-like, or an instrument of God, or who is considered as such by others.

#A guru in the form of a book i.e. the Guru Granth Sahib in the Sikh religion;

Semiconductor chip - Classification
Integrated circuits can be classified into analog circuit|analog, digital circuit|digital and mixed-signal integrated circuit|mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).

Digital integrated circuits can contain anywhere from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, digital signal processors|DSPs, and micro controllers, work using binary mathematics to process one and zero signals.

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power network design (IC)|power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like Amplifier|amplification, active filtering, demodulation, and Frequency mixer|mixing. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.

ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as Analog-to-digital converter|A/D converters and digital-to-analog converter|D/A converters. Such mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference.

* Digital ICs are further sub-categorized as logic ICs, semiconductor memory|memory chips, interface ICs (logic level|level shifters, serializer/deserializer, etc.), Power Management ICs, and programmable devices.

* Analog ICs are further sub-categorized as linear ICs and RF ICs.

* mixed-signal integrated circuits are further sub-categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D converters, D/A converter, digital potentiometers) and clock/timing ICs.

Phase shift module - Classification
* 'Active versus passive': Active phase shifters provide gain, while passive phase shifters are lossy.

*** Loss: the phase shifter attenuates while phase shifting

* 'Analog versus digital':

** Analog phase shifters provide a continuously variable phase shift or time delay.[ Microwave Phase Shifter] information from Herley Industries|Herley General Microwave

** Digital phase shifters provide a discrete set of phase shifts or time delays. Discretization leads to quantization errors. Digital phase shifters require parallel bus control.

* 'Differential, single-ended or waveguide':

** Differential signaling|Differential transmission line: A differential transmission line is a balanced two-conductor transmission line in which the phase difference between currents is 180 degrees. The differential mode is less susceptible to common mode noise and cross talk.

** Single-ended transmission line: A single-ended transmission line is a two-conductor transmission line in which one conductor is referenced to a common ground, the second conductor. The single-ended mode is more susceptible to common-mode noise and cross talk.

*** Antenna selection: double folded slot (DFS), microstrip, Monopole antenna|monopole

*** Antenna selection: waveguide, horn antenna|horn

* 'One-conductor or dielectric transmission line versus two-conductor transmission line'

** One-conductor or dielectric transmission line (optical fibre, finline, waveguide):

*** No TEM or quasi-TEM mode, not TTD or quasi-TTD

** Two-conductor transmission line (CPW, microstrip, slotline, stripline):

*** TEM or quasi-TEM mode is TTD or quasi-TTD

** A phase shifter provides an invariable phase shift with frequency, and is used for fixed-beam frequency-invariant pattern synthesis.

** A TTD phase shifter provides an invariable time delay with frequency, and is used for squint-free and ultra wideband (UWB) beam steering.

* 'Reciprocal versus non-reciprocal'

** Non semi-conducting (ferrite, ferro-electric, RF MEMS, liquid crystal):

** Semi-conducting (RF CMOS, Gallium(III) arsenide|GaAs. SiGe, InP, GaN or Sb):

**** Undistorted and TTD if distributed

**** Distorted if S21 phase shifter, because of 3 dB coupler

**** Undistorted if the metamaterial|left-handed high-pass sections cancel out the distortion of the right-handed low-pass sections

*** Applications: UWB beam steering

*** Distortion: undistorted and TTD

Cloud - First comprehensive classification
Howard's original system established three general cloud categories based on physical appearance and process of formation: cirriform (mainly detached and wispy), cumuliform or convective (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective stratiform (mainly continuous layers in sheets)

Cloud - Families and cross-classification into genera
Several but not all methods of altitude classification treat clouds with significant vertical extent as a separate family

Cloud - Classification
The formation of Polar stratospheric cloud is limited to a single very high range of altitude, so this class is not divided into height-related families. Polar stratospheric has a generally cirriform structure and appearance and does not have separate genus types, species, or varieties. Instead, the classification is alpha-numeric and is based on chemical makeup rather than variations in physical appearance.

Cloud - Classification
Polar mesospheric clouds all tend to form at an extreme altitude range and are consequently not classified into height-related families. They are given the Latin name Noctilucent clouds|Noctilucent because of their illumination well after sunset and before sunrise. An alpha-numeric classification is used to identify variations in physical appearance.

Posttraumatic stress disorder - Classification
Posttraumatic stress disorder is classified as an anxiety disorder; the characteristic symptoms are not present before exposure to the violently traumatic event

Posttraumatic stress disorder - International Classification of Diseases
The diagnostic criteria for PTSD, stipulated in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10 (ICD-10), may be summarized as:

* Exposure to a stressful event or situation (either short or long lasting) of exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature, which is likely to cause pervasive distress in almost anyone.

* Persistent remembering or reliving the stressor by intrusive flash backs, vivid memories, recurring dreams, or by experiencing distress when exposed to circumstances resembling or associated with the stressor.

* Actual or preferred avoidance of circumstances resembling or associated with the stressor (not present before exposure to the stressor).

# Inability to recall, either partially or completely, some important aspects of the period of exposure to the stressor

# Persistent symptoms of increased psychological sensitivity and arousal (not present before exposure to the stressor) shown by any two of the following:

* difficulty in falling or staying asleep;
Posttraumatic stress disorder - International Classification of Diseases * difficulty in falling or staying asleep;

* irritability or outbursts of anger;
Posttraumatic stress disorder - International Classification of Diseases * irritability or outbursts of anger;

This disorder should not generally be diagnosed unless there is evidence that it arose within 6 months

of a traumatic event of exceptional severity. A probable diagnosis might still be possible if

clinical manifestations are typical and no alternative identification of the disorder (e.g. as an anxiety or obsessive-compulsive disorder or depressive episode) is plausible. In addition to

evidence of trauma, there must be a repetitive, intrusive recollection or re-enactment of the

event in memories, daytime imagery, or dreams. Conspicuous emotional detachment,

numbing of feeling, and avoidance of stimuli that might arouse recollection of the trauma are often present but are not essential for the diagnosis. The autonomic disturbances, mood

disorder, and behavioural abnormalities all contribute to the diagnosis but are not of prime

The late chronic sequelae of devastating stress,
Posttraumatic stress disorder - International Classification of Diseases The late chronic sequelae of devastating stress,

i.e. those manifest decades after the stressful
Posttraumatic stress disorder - International Classification of Diseases i.e. those manifest decades after the stressful

experience, should be classified under ICD-10 Chapter F: Mental and behavioural disorders|F62.0.

Pervasive game - Classification
The term has been associated with ubiquitous games, Augmented reality|augmented and mixed reality games, mobile games, alternate reality games, live action role playing|(enhanced) live action role playing, affective gaming, Virtual Reality games, smart toys, Location-based game|location-based or location-aware games, crossmedia games and Augmented Reality tabletop games

Second Life - Classification
During a 2001 meeting with investors, Rosedale noticed that the participants were particularly responsive to the collaborative, creative potential of Second Life. As a result, the initial objective-driven, gaming focus of Second Life was shifted to a more user-created, community-driven experience.

Second Life's status as a virtual world, a computer game, or a talker, is frequently debated

Second Life used to offer two main grids: one for adults (18+) and one for teens. In August 2010, Linden Lab closed the teen grid due to operating costs. Since then, users aged 16 and over can sign up for a free account. Other limited accounts are available for educators who use Second Life with younger students.

:# General (formerly PG—no extreme violence or nudity)

:# Moderate (formerly Mature—some violence, swearing, adult situations, some nudity)

:# Adult (may contain overt sexual activity, nudity, and violence)

Simulation - Classification and terminology
Historically, simulations used in different fields developed largely independently, but 20th century studies of Systems theory and Cybernetics combined with spreading use of computers across all those fields have led to some unification and a more systematic view of the concept.

Physical simulation refers to simulation in which physical objects are substituted for the real thing (some circlesFor example in computer graphics [ SIGGRAPH 2007 | For Attendees | Papers] [ Doc:Tutorials/Physics/BSoD - BlenderWiki]

Interactive simulation is a special kind of physical simulation, often referred to as a Human-in-the-Loop|human in the loop simulation, in which physical simulations include human operators, such as in a flight simulator or a driving simulator.

Human in the loop simulations can include a computer simulation as a so-called synthetic environment.Thales Group|Thales defines synthetic environment as the counterpart to simulated models of sensors, platforms and other active objects for the simulation of the external factors that affect them[ while other vendors use the term for more visual, Virtual Reality-style simulators [

Digital watermarking - Classification
A digital watermark is called robust with respect to transformations if the embedded information may be detected reliably from the marked signal, even if degraded by any number of transformations

Photo sharing - Photos classification
Photo sharing sitesBrown, F

Photo sharing - Photos classification
Some sites including Panoramio and Wikimedia Commons show their geocoded photographs on a map, helping the user find pictures of the same or nearby objects from different directions.

RateBasedIPS - Classifications
# 'Network-based intrusion prevention system (NIPS)': monitors the entire network for suspicious traffic by analyzing protocol activity.

# 'Wireless intrusion prevention systems (WIPS)': monitor a wireless network for suspicious traffic by analyzing wireless networking protocols.

# 'Network behavior analysis (NBA)': examines network traffic to identify threats that generate unusual traffic flows, such as distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, certain forms of malware and policy violations.

# 'Host-based intrusion prevention system (HIPS)': an installed software package which monitors a single host for suspicious activity by analyzing events occurring within that host.

Game - Gameplay elements and classification
Games can be characterized by what the player does. This is often referred to as gameplay. Major key elements identified in this context are tools and rules that define the overall context of game.

Caterpillar - Classification
The Geometridae|geometrids, also known as inchworms or loopers, are so named because of the way they move, appearing to measure the earth (the word geometrid means earth-measurer in Greek language|Greek); the primary reason for this unusual locomotion is the elimination of nearly all the prolegs except the clasper on the terminal segment.

Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Only the head capsule is hardened. The Mandible (insect mouthpart)|mandibles are tough and sharp for chewing leaves (this contrasts with most adult Lepidoptera, which have highly reduced or soft mandibles). Behind the mandibles of the caterpillar are the spinneret (spider)|spinnerets, for manipulating silk.

Some larvae of the Hymenoptera order (ants, bees and wasps) can appear like the caterpillars of the lepidoptera

Caterpillars can be confused with the larvae of Symphyta|sawflies (see image on right). Lepidopteran larvae can be differentiated by:

* the numbers of pairs of pro-legs; sawfly larvae have 6 while caterpillars have up to 5 pairs.

* the number of stemmata (simple eyes); the sawfly larvae have only two, while a caterpillar has six.

Cybercrime - Classification
Computer crime encompasses a broad range of activities. Generally, however, it may be divided into two categories: (1) crimes that target computers directly; (2) crimes facilitated by computer networks or devices, the primary target of which is independent of the computer network or device.

Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:

*Malware (malicious code)

Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:

The unsolicited sending of bulk for commercial purposes, is un-lawful spam legislation by country|in some jurisdictions. While anti-spam laws are relatively new, limits on unsolicited electronic communications have existed for some time.See, e.g., Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991, Do-Not-Call Implementation Act of 2003, CAN-SPAM Act of 2003.

Traffic shaping - Traffic classification
Simple traffic shaping schemes shape all traffic uniformly by rate. More sophisticated shapers first traffic classification|classify traffic. Traffic classification categorises traffic (for example, based on port number or Protocol (computing)|protocol). Different classes can then be shaped separately to achieve a desired effect.

Serious game - Classification
The classification of serious games is something that is yet to solidify, there are however a number of terms in reasonably common use for inclusion here.

*'Advergaming|Advergames': The use of games for advertising. The approach can include numerous different ways of advertising more or less well-known from other media. You can have product placement, banners in-game or just traffic triggers.

*'Edutainment': A combination of education and entertainment.

*'Game based learning|Games-Based Learning' or Game Learning- These games have defined learning outcomes. Generally they are designed in order to balance the subject matter with the gameplay and the ability of the player to retain and apply said subject matter to the real world.The book 'Digital Game-Based Learning' by Marc Prensky was the first major publication to define the term, [ The Official Site of the book 'Digital Game-Based Learning' by Marc Prensky]

*'Edumarket Games' - When a serious game combines several aspects (such as advergaming and edutainment aspects or persuasive and news aspects), the application is an Edumarket game. For example, Food Force combines news, persuasive and edutainment goals.

*'Newsgames' - Journalistic games that report on recent events or deliver an editorial comment. Examples include September 12thGonzalo Frasca of [ newsgaming.com] which denounces the use of violence to resolve the problem of terrorism.

*'Simulations or Simulation video game|Simulation Games' - games used for the acquisition or exercise of different skills, to teach effective behavior in the context of simulated conditions or situations

*'Recruitment tool|Persuasive Games' - games used as persuasion technology

or physical rehabilitation uses.Rego, P., Moreira, P.M., Reis, L.P., Serious games for rehabilitation: A survey and a classification towards a taxonomy,In Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), th Iberian Conference on , pp.1,6, 16-19, 2010.

[ Technology and mental health issues can use Serious Games to make therapy accessible to adolescents who would otherwise would not find a psychotherapist approachable.

*'Exergaming' - games that are used as a form of exercise.

*'Art Games' - games used to express art|artistic ideas or art produced through the medium of Video Games

*'Productivity game' - games which reward points for accomplished real-world tasks using to-do lists.

*'Training and Simulations' - See Gamification.

*'Game with a purpose|Games with a purpose' try to solve various tasks that require common sense or human experience in an entertaining setting.

Additionally Julian Alvarez and Olivier Rampnoux (from the European Center for Children's Products, University of Poitiers) have attempted to classify serious games in 5 main categories: Advergaming, Edutainment, Edumarket game, Diverted game and Simulation game.Alvarez J., Rampnoux O., Serious Game: Just a question of posture?, in Artificial Ambient Intelligence, AISB'07, Newcastle, UK, April 2007, p.420 to 423

Obesity - Classification
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health. It is defined by body mass index|body mass index (BMI) and further evaluated in terms of fat distribution via the waist-hip ratio|waist–hip ratio and total cardiovascular risk factors.NHLBI p.xiv BMI is closely related to both Body fat percentage|percentage body fat and total body fat.

In children, a healthy weight varies with age and sex. Obesity in children and adolescents is defined not as an absolute number but in relation to a historical normal group, such that obesity is a BMI greater than the 95thpercentile. The reference data on which these percentiles were based date from 1963 to 1994, and thus have not been affected by the recent increases in weight.

The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries

The widespread availability of Nutrition#Advice and guidance|nutritional guidelines has done little to address the problems of overeating and poor dietary choice

As societies become increasingly reliant on food energy|energy-dense, big-portions, and fast-food meals, the association between fast-food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning. In the United States consumption of fast-food meals tripled and food energy intake from these meals quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.

Agricultural policy and Green Revolution (agriculture)|techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food prices. In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables. Calorie count laws and nutrition facts labels attempt to steer people toward making healthier food choices, including awareness of how many calories are being consumed.

Obese people consistently under-report their food consumption as compared to people of normal weight.Kopelman and Caterson 2005:324. This is supported both by tests of people carried out in a calorimeter room and by direct observation.

Maximum power point tracker - Classification
Controllers usually follow one of three types of strategies to optimize the power output of an array. Maximum power point trackers may implement different algorithms and switch between them based on the operating conditions of the array.Rahmani, R., M. Seyedmahmoudian, S. Mekhilef and R. Yusof, Implementation of fuzzy logic maximum power point tracking controller for photovoltaic system. Am. J. Applied Sci., 10:

Madison Symmetric Torus - Classification
As in most such experiments the MST plasma is a toroidal Pinch (plasma physics)|pinch, which means the plasma is shaped like a donut and confined by a magnetic field generated by a large current flowing through it. MST falls into an unconventional class of machine called a reversed field pinch (RFP.) The RFP is so named because the toroidal magnetic field that permeates the Plasma (physics)|plasma spontaneously reverses direction near the edge.

Madison Symmetric Torus - Classification
A reversed field pinch is formed similarly to other toroidal pinch devices, by driving current through the plasma from an associated capacitor bank or other high-current power source

Aerodynamics - Flow classification
A fourth classification, hypersonic flow, refers to flows where the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound

Compressibility refers to whether or not the flow in a problem can have a varying density. Subsonic flows are often assumed to be incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic flows are compressible, and neglecting to account for the changes in density in these flow fields when performing calculations will yield inaccurate results.

Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a flow

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension - Classification
The terms benign and pseudotumor derive from the fact that increased intracranial pressure may be associated with brain tumors

Idiopathic intracranial hypertension - Classification
Shunt surgery was introduced in 1949; initially, ventriculoperitoneal shunts were used. In 1971, good results were reported with lumboperitoneal shunting. Negative reports on shunting in the 1980s led to a brief period (1988–1993) during which optic nerve fenestration (which had initially been described in an unrelated condition in 1871) was more popular. Since then, shunting is recommended predominantly, with occasional exceptions.

Minerals - Nomenclature and classification
In general, a mineral is defined as naturally occurring solid, that is stable at room temperature, representable by a chemical formula, usually abiogenic, and has an ordered atomic structure

The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.Dyar and Gunter, pp 558–559

There are presently over 4,660 approved mineral species.[ IMA Database of Mineral Properties] They are most commonly named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies.Dyar and Gunter,p The common suffix -ite of mineral names descends from the ancient Greek suffix - ί τ η ς (-ites), meaning connected with or belonging to.See:

Da Costa's syndrome - Classification
The World Health Organization classifies this condition as a somatoform disorder|somatoform Dysautonomia|autonomic dysfunction (a type of psychosomatic disorder) in their ICD-10 coding system. In their ICD-9 system, it was classified under non-psychotic mental disorders. The syndrome is also frequently interpreted as one of a number of imprecisely characterized postwar syndromes.

Da Costa's syndrome - Classification
There are many names for the syndrome, which has variously been called cardiac neurosis, chronic asthenia, effort syndrome, functional cardiovascular disease, neurocirculatory asthenia, primary neurasthenia, and subacute asthenia

Cluttering - Classification
Cluttering is a speech disorder|speech and communication disorder that has also been described as a fluency disorder.

Cluttering - Classification
It is defined as:Cluttering is a fluency disorder characterized by a rate that is perceived to be abnormally rapid, irregular, or both for the speaker (although measured syllable rates may not exceed normal limits)

Mollusca - Classification
Opinions vary about the number of class (biology)|classes of molluscs; for example, the table below shows eight living classes, and two extinct ones. Although they are unlikely to form a clade, some older works combine the Caudofoveata and solenogasters into one class, the Aplacophora. Two of the commonly recognized classes are known only from fossils.

Mollusca - Classification
Classification into higher taxa for these groups has been and remains problematic. A phylogenetic study suggests the Polyplacophora form a clade with a monophyletic Aplacophora. Additionally, it suggests a sister taxon relationship exists between the Bivalvia and the Gastropoda.

Brain herniation - Classification
There are two major classes of herniation: supratentorial and infratentorial. Supratentorial herniation is of structures normally above the tentorial notch and infratentorial is of structures normally below it.Orlando Regional Healthcare, Education and Development [ Overview of Adult Traumatic Brain Injuries.] Retrieved on January 16, 2008.

* 'Supratentorial herniation'

# Uncal (transtentorial)

Upward (upward cerebellar or upward transtentorial)

Cerebrovascular disease - Classification
A transient ischemic attack (TIA) leaves little to no permanent damage within the brain. The symptoms of this include facial weakness, visual impairment, loss of coordination, or balance, a sudden headache, and mental confusion with unintelligible speech. Severe blockage of the arteries to the brain is known as carotid stenosis.

Resource extraction - Classification
There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, and by their renewability. These classifications are described below.

On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:

* Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter.

* Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material. Examples of abiotic resources include wikt:land|land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following ways:

* Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum may exist in various places with sedimentary rocks but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.

* Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved.

* Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource.

* Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

Renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable:

* Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally

* Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment

Aphasia - Classification
Classifying the different subtypes of aphasia is difficult and has led to disagreements among experts. The localizationist model is the original model, but modern anatomical techniques and analyses have shown that precise connections between brain regions and symptom classification do not exist. The neural organization of language is complicated; language is a comprehensive and complex behavior and it makes sense that it is not the product of some small, circumscribed region of the brain.

Aphasia - Classification
No classification of patients in subtypes and groups of subtypes is adequate. Only about 60% of patients will fit in a classification scheme such as fluent/nonfluent/pure aphasias. There is a huge variation among patients with the same diagnosis, and aphasias can be highly selective. For instance, patients with naming deficits (anomic aphasia) might show an inability only for naming buildings, or people, or colors.

Solar inverter - Classification
* 'Stand-alone inverters', used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an Alternating current|AC source, when available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have Islanding|anti-islanding protection.

* 'Grid-tie inverters', which match phase (waves)|phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup power during utility outages.

* 'Battery backup inverters', are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding protection.

Intracranial hypotension - Classification
SCSFLS is classified into two main types, Human cranium|cranial leaks and spinal canal|spinal leaks

Distal hereditary motor neuropathies - Classification
In 1993, A. E. Hardnig proposed to classify hereditary motor neuropathies into seven groups based on age at onset, mode of inheritance, and presence of additional features. This initial classification has since been widely adopted and expanded and currently looks as follows:

Epilepsy - Classification
Those with seizures should be classified by seizure type, underlying cause, List of epilepsy syndromes|epilepsy syndrome, and events during and around the time of the seizures

Epilepsy - Classification
Focal seizures (previously known as partial seizures) used to be divided into Simple partial seizure|simple partial or Complex partial seizure|complex partial seizure. This is no longer recommended, and instead it is preferred to describe what has occurred during a seizure.

Body dysmorphic disorder - Classification
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders defines body dysmorphic disorder as a somatoform disorder marked by a preoccupation with an imagined or trivial defect in appearance that causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning. The individual's symptoms must not be better accounted for by another disorder; for example, body weight|weight concern in the case of anorexia nervosa.

Animal - History of classification
Aristotle divided the living world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné), in the first hierarchical classification. Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat. For instance, microscopic protozoa were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.

Animal - History of classification
In Linnaeus's original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Vermes, Insecta in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Insecta, Pisces in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Pisces, Amphibia in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Amphibia, Aves in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Aves, and Mammalia in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae|Mammalia

Pulmonary disease - Classification
Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause (etiology) of the disease.

Vegetation - Classification
It often emphasizes Indicator value|indicator or diagnostic species which may distinguish one classification from another.

In the FGDC standard, the hierarchy levels, from most general to most specific, are: system, class, subclass, group, formation, alliance, and association

discussing particular species in axonomy and in general communication.

Victoria (Australia)|Victoria in Australia classifies its vegetation by Ecological Vegetation Class.

Herpes simplex - Classification
Herpes simplex is divided into two types: HSV type 1 and HSV type 2. HSV1 causes primarily mouth, throat, face, eye, and central nervous system infections, whereas HSV2 causes primarily anogenital infections. However, each may cause infections in all areas.

Impulse control disorder - Classification
Disorders characterised by impulsivity that were not categorised elsewhere in the DSM-IV-TR were included in the category Impulse control disorders not elsewhere classified. Trichotillomania (hair-pulling) and skin-picking were moved in DSM-5 to the Obsessive-Compulsive chapter.

Autism - Classification
Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication, and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior. These symptoms do not imply sickness, fragility, or emotional disturbance.

Of the five PDD forms, Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism, but may have unrelated causes; PDD not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS; also called atypical autism) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder

The manifestations of autism cover a wide Spectrum disorder|spectrum, ranging from individuals with severe impairments—who may be silent, developmentally disabled, and locked into hand flapping and rocking—to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches, narrowly focused interests, and verbose, pedantic communication

Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills, as opposed to a failure to make progress, typically from 15 to 30 months of age. The validity of this distinction remains controversial; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype, A partial update is in: or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression.

Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, neurology and pediatrics

Lower motor neuron - Classification
Lower motor neurons are classified based on the type of muscle fiber they innervate:

* Alpha motor neurons (α-MNs) innervate extrafusal muscle fibers, the most numerous type of muscle fiber and the one involved in muscle contraction.

* Gamma motor neurons (γ-MNs) innervate intrafusal muscle fibers, which together with sensory afferents compose muscle spindles. These are part of the system for sensing proprioception|body position (proprioception).

Congenital - Classification
Much of the language used for describing congenital conditions predates genomic mapping, and structural conditions are often considered separately from other congenital conditions. It is now known that many metabolic conditions may have subtle structural expression, and structural conditions often have genetic links. Still, congenital conditions are often classified in a structural basis, organized when possible by primary organ system affected.

Cloudinid - Classification
Cloudina was originally classified in 1972 as a member of the Cribricyathea, a class known from the Early Cambrian. Glaessner (1976) accepted this classification and also

Cloudinid - Classification
However, as with so many Ediacaran life forms, there is great debate surrounding its position in the tree of life, and classification between the kingdom (biology)|kingdom and family level may be unwise.

Asperger syndrome - Classification
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines Asperger syndrome (AS) as one of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are a spectrum disorder|spectrum of psychological conditions that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior

Asperger syndrome - Classification
The ASD classification is to some extent an artifact of how autism was discovered, and may not reflect the true nature of the spectrum; methodological problems have beset Asperger syndrome as a valid diagnosis from the outset

Amber - Classification
There is also a separate classifications of amber gemstones, according to the way of production.

Amber - Classification of Baltic amber by the IAA
*Natural Baltic amber – gemstone which has undergone mechanical treatment only (for instance: grinding, cutting, turning or polishing) without any change to its natural properties

*Modified Baltic amber – gemstone subjected only to thermal or high-pressure treatment, which changed its physical properties, including the degree of transparency and color, or shaped under similar conditions out of one nugget, previously cut to the required size.

*Reconstructed (pressed) Baltic amber – gemstone made of Baltic amber pieces pressed in high temperature and under high pressure without additional components.

*Bonded Baltic amber – gemstone consisting of two or more parts of natural, modified or reconstructed Baltic amber bonded together with the use of the smallest possible amount of a colorless binding agent necessary to join the pieces.

Dementia with Lewy bodies - Classification
Lewy body dementia (LBD) is a progressive degenerative dementia of the elderly

In LBD, loss of cholinergic (acetylcholine-producing) neurons is thought to account for degeneration of cognitive function (similar to Alzheimer's), while the death of dopaminergic (dopamine-producing) neurons appears to be responsible for degeneration of motor control (similar to Parkinson's) ndash; in some ways, therefore, it resembles both diseases

Benzodiazepines, anticholinergics, surgical anesthetics, some antidepressants, and Over-the-counter drug|OTC cold remedies can cause acute confusion, delusions and hallucinations.

DLB is distinguished from the dementia that sometimes occurs in Parkinson's disease by the time frame in which dementia symptoms appear relative to Parkinson symptoms. Parkinson's disease with dementia (PDD) would be the diagnosis when dementia onset is more than a year after the onset of Parkinson's. DLB is diagnosed when cognitive symptoms begin at the same time or within a year of Parkinson symptoms.

Essential tremor - Classification
Essential tremor has been known as benign essential tremor, but the adjective benign has been removed in recognition of the sometimes disabling nature of the disorder.

Bacteriophage - Classification
The dsDNA tailed phages, or Caudovirales, account for 95% of all the phages reported in the scientific literature, and possibly make up the majority of phages on the planet. However, other phages occur abundantly in the biosphere, with different virions, genomes and lifestyles. Phages are classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) according to morphology and nucleic acid.

Bacteriophage - Classification
Nineteen families are currently recognised that infect bacteria and archaea. Of these, only two families have RNA genomes and only five families are enveloped. Of the viral families with DNA genomes, only two have single-stranded genomes. Eight of the viral families with DNA genomes have circular genomes, while nine have linear genomes. Nine families infect bacteria only, nine infect archaea only, and one (Tectiviridae) infects both bacteria and archaea.

Unmanned aircraft system - Classification
UAVs typically fall into one of six functional categories (although multi-role airframe platforms are becoming more prevalent):

* Target and decoy– providing ground and aerial gunnery a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile

* Combat– providing attack capability for high-risk missions (see Unmanned combat air vehicle)

* Logistics– UAVs specifically designed for cargo and logistics operation

* Research and development– used to further develop UAV technologies to be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft

* Civil and Commercial UAVs– UAVs specifically designed for civil and commercial applications

They can also be categorised in terms of range/altitude and the following has been advanced as relevant at such industry events as ParcAberporth Unmanned Systems forum:

* Hand-held altitude, about 2km range

* Close altitude, up to 10km range

* NATO type altitude, up to 50km range

* Tactical altitude, about 160km range

* Medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle|MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to and range over 200km

* HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over and indefinite range

* HYPERSONIC high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) or suborbital altitude, range over 200km

* CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer

* CACGS Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System for UAVs

The United States military employs a U.S. Military UAV tier system|tier system for categorizing its UAVs.

The modern concept of U.S
Unmanned aircraft system - Classifications by the United States military The modern concept of U.S

Gender identity disorder - International classification
In December 2002, the British Lord Chancellor's office published a Government Policy Concerning Transsexual People document that categorically states What transsexualism is not...It is not a mental illness. In May 2009, the government of France has also declared that a transsexual gender identity will no longer be classified as a psychiatric condition in France.

In August 31, 2010, Thomas Hammarberg, Commissioner for Human Rights within the Strasbourg-based Council of Europe, an independent institution, opposed the mental disorder classification and the sterilization of transgender persons as a requirement for legal sex change.[ Forced divorce and sterilisation - a reality for many transgender persons]

Each person's self-defined sexual orientation and gender identity is integral to their personality and is one of the most basic aspects of self-determination, dignity and freedom, and the Principle 18 of this states that Notwithstanding any classifications to the contrary, a person's sexual orientation and gender identity are not, in and of themselves, medical condition and are not to be treated, cured or suppressed.

Neurons - Classification by neurotransmitter production
Neurons differ in the type of neurotransmitter they manufacture. Some examples are:

*Cholinergic neurons—acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors, are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing influx of Na+ depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release.

*GABAergic neurons—gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the CNS, the other being Glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an action potential firing as the voltage becomes more negative (recall that for an action potential to fire, a positive voltage threshold must be reached).

*Glutamatergic neurons—glutamate. Glutamate is one of two primary excitatory amino acids, the other being Aspartate. Glutamate receptors are one of four categories, three of which are ligand-gated ion channels and one of which is a G-protein coupled receptor (often referred to as GPCR).

:#AMPA and Kainate receptors both function as cation channels permeable to Na+ cation channels mediating fast excitatory synaptic transmission

:#NMDA receptors are another cation channel that is more permeable to Ca2+. The function of NMDA receptors is dependant on Glycine receptor binding as a co-agonist within the channel pore. NMDA receptors do not function without both ligands present.

:#Metabotropic receptors, GPCRs modulate synaptic transmission and postsynaptic excitability.

::Glutamate can cause excitotoxicity when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, resulting in brain damage. When blood flow is suppressed, glutamate is released from presynaptic neurons causing NMDA and AMPA receptor activation more so than would normally be the case outside of stress conditions, leading to elevated Ca2+ and Na+ entering the post synaptic neuron and cell damage.

*Dopaminergic neurons—dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that acts on D1 type (D1 and D5) Gs coupled receptors, which increase cAMP and PKA, and D2 type (D2, D3, and D4) receptors, which activate Gi-coupled receptors that decrease cAMP and PKA. Dopamine is connected to mood and behavior, and modulates both pre and post synaptic neurotransmission. Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra has been linked to Parkinson's disease.

*Serotonergic neurons—serotonin. Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) can act as excitatory or inhibitory. Of the four 5-HT receptor classes, 3 are GPCR and 1 is ligand gated cation channel. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase, and then further by aromatic acid decarboxylase. A lack of 5-HT at postsynaptic neurons has been linked to depression. Drugs that block the presynaptic serotonin transporter are used for treatment, such as Prozac and Zoloft.

Bipolar disorder NOS - Classification
BD-NOS is a mood disorder and one of three subtypes on the bipolar spectrum, which also includes bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder.

Water conflict - Classifications
According to Aaron Wolf, et all.Wolf A., Yoffe S., Giordano M., International Waters: Indicators for Identifying basins at risk, PCCP project, UNESCO, there were 1831 water conflicts over transboundary basins from 1950–2000. They categorized these events as following:

*Nations cooperate over a wide variety of issues

*Nations conflict over quantity and infrastructure

A comprehensive chronology of water-related conflicts is maintained by the Pacific Institute in their Water Conflict Chronology, which includes an open-source data set, an interactive map, and full information on citations. These historical examples go back over 4,500 years. In this dataset, water conflicts are categorized as follows:

*Control of Water Resources (state and non-state actors): where water supplies or access to water is at the root of tensions.

*Military Tool (state actors): where water resources, or water systems themselves, are used by a nation or state as a weapon during a military action.

*Political Tool (state and non-state actors): where water resources, or water systems themselves, are used by a nation, state, or non-state actor for a political goal.

*Terrorism (non-state actors): where water resources, or water systems, are either targets or tools of violence or coercion by non-state actors.

*Military Target (state actors): where water resource systems are targets of military actions by nations or states.

*Development Disputes (state and non-state actors): where water resources or water systems are a major source of contention and dispute in the context of economic and social development

Permittivity - Classification of materials
Materials can be classified according to their complex-valued permittivity ε, upon comparison of its real ε’ and imaginary ε components (or, equivalently, Electric conductivity|conductivity, σ, when it's accounted for in the latter)

Drug overdose - Classification
The word overdose implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, though even certain poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage.

Drug overdoses are sometimes caused intentionally to commit suicide or as self-harm, but many drug overdoses are accidental, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.

Usage of illicit drugs of unexpected purity, in large quantities, or after a period of drug abstinence can also induce overdose. Cocaine users who Injection (medicine)#Intravenous infusion|inject intravenously can easily overdose accidentally, as the margin between a pleasurable drug sensation and an overdose is small.Study on [ fatal overdose] in New-York City , visited May 11, 2008

Unintentional misuse can include errors in dosage caused by failure to read or understand product labels

The term 'overdose' is often misused as a descriptor for adverse drug reactions or negative drug interactions due to polypharmacy|mixing multiple drugs simultaneously.

Mast cells - Origin and classification
Mast cells were first described by Paul Ehrlich in his 1878 doctoral thesis on the basis of their unique staining characteristics and large granules

Mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes (a class of white blood cells) in blood

Two types of mast cells are recognized, those from connective tissue and a distinct set of mucosal mast cells. The activities of the latter are dependent on T-cells.

Mast cells are present in most tissues characteristically surrounding blood vessels and nerves, and are especially prominent near the boundaries between the outside world and the internal milieu, such as the skin, mucosa of the lungs and digestive tract, as well as in the mouth, conjunctiva and Human nose|nose.

Headache - Classification
Headaches are most thoroughly classified by the International Headache Society's International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD), which published the second edition in This classification is accepted by the WHO.

Headache - Classification
Other classification systems exist. One of the first published attempts was in The National Institutes of Health developed a classification system in 1962.

Solvent - Solvent classifications
Solvents can be broadly classified into two categories: polar and non-polar

Akathisia - Classification
*Duration of less than 6 months

*Complex and semi-purposeful motor fidgetiness

*Subjective sense of restlessness may be less marked

;Pseudoakathisia

*Motor manifestations without subjective component

*Not related to a recent change in drugs or dose

;Withdrawal or rebound akathisia

*Onset usually within 6 weeks of discontinuation or dose decrease

*Anticholinergic discontinuation reaction

Herbicide - Classification
Herbicides can be grouped by activity, use, chemical family, mode of action, or type of vegetation controlled.

* 'Contact' herbicides destroy only the plant tissue in contact with the chemical. Generally, these are the fastest acting herbicides. They are less effective on perennial plants, which are able to regrow from rhizomes, roots or tubers.

* 'Systemic' herbicides are translocated through the plant, either from foliar application down to the roots, or from soil application up to the leaves. They are capable of controlling perennial plants and may be slower-acting, but ultimately more effective than contact herbicides.

* 'Soil-applied' herbicides are applied to the soil and are taken up by the roots and/or hypocotyl of the target plant. The three main types are:

# 'Preplant incorporated' herbicides are soil applied prior to planting and mechanically incorporated into the soil. The objective for incorporation is to prevent dissipation through Photodissociation|photodecomposition and/or volatility.

* 'ACCase inhibitors' compounds kill grasses. Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (ACCase) is part of the first step of lipid synthesis. Thus, ACCase inhibitors affect cell membrane production in the meristems of the grass plant. The ACCases of grasses are sensitive to these herbicides, whereas the ACCases of dicot plants are not.

* ' ALS inhibitors': the acetolactate synthase (ALS) enzyme (also known as acetohydroxyacid synthase, or AHAS) is the first step in the synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids (valine, leucine, and isoleucine)

* 'EPSPS inhibitors': The enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase enzyme EPSPS is used in the synthesis of the amino acids tryptophan, phenylalanine and tyrosine. They affect grasses and dicots alike. Glyphosate (Roundup) is a systemic EPSPS inhibitor inactivated by soil contact.

* 'Synthetic auxins' inaugurated the era of organic herbicides. They were discovered in the 1940s after a long study of the plant growth regulator auxin. Synthetic auxins mimic this plant hormone. They have several points of action on the cell membrane, and are effective in the control of dicot plants. 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin herbicide.

* 'Photosystem II inhibitors' reduce electron flow from water to NADPH2+ at the photochemical step in photosynthesis

* 'Photosystem I inhibitors' steal electrons from the normal pathway through FeS – Fdx – NADP leading to direct discharge of electrons on oxygen. As a result, reactive oxygen species are produced and oxidation reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, leading to plant death.

Bipyridinium herbicides (such as diquat and paraquat) hit the Fe-S – Fdx step while diphenyl ether herbicide (such as nitrofen, nitrofluorfen, and acifluorfen) hit the Fdx – NADP step.

Nanomaterial - Classification
Materials referred to as nanomaterials generally fall into two categories: fullerenes, and inorganic nanoparticles. See also List of nanotechnology topics#Nanomaterials|Nanomaterials in List of nanotechnology topics

Petroleum fuel - Classification
The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g

The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery

barrel (unit)|Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing Benchmark (crude oil)|references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:

* West Texas Intermediate (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at Cushing, Oklahoma for North American oil

* Brent Crude|Brent Blend, comprising 15 oils from fields in the Brent oilfield|Brent and Ninian systems in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea. The oil is landed at Sullom Voe terminal in Shetland. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a Benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark

* Dubai Crude|Dubai-Oman, used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region

* Tapis crude|Tapis (from Malaysia, used as a reference for light Far East oil)

* Minas (from Indonesia, used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)

* The OPEC Reference Basket, a weighted average of oil blends from various OPEC (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries

* Midway-Sunset Oil Field|Midway Sunset Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at Hardisty, Alberta|Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk, Leningrad Oblast|Primorsk.

For More Information, Visit:
The Art of Service

Classification https://store.theartofservice.com/the-classification-toolkit.html.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Classification https://store.theartofservice.com/the-classification-toolkit.html."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Classification https://store.theartofservice.com/the-classification-toolkit.html.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Classification https://store.theartofservice.com/the-classification-toolkit.html."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback