1. VACCINATION

2. Purpose of Vaccination
Vaccines in poultry production are used to prevent or reduce problems that can occur from infection of a field strain of a disease organism.
Vaccines and vaccine programs vary widely in their effectiveness, and this is frequently by design.

3. Some vaccines are designed to incite high levels of immunity to protect birds in the face of aggressive endemic disease challenges, such as vvND. These vaccines may cause a mild form of the disease themselves but are deemed appropriate and useful because of the risk associated with eventual infection of the deadly field pathogen.

4. A second reason for the vaccination of poultry flocks is to hyper-immunize hens to maximize maternally derived antibody passed through the egg to the hatching progeny.
Chicks frequently receive up to 3 weeks of protection from maternal antibodies allowing their immune system to mature to a level capable of eliciting an efficient active immune response if exposed to a potentially harmful virus or bacteria.

5. Types of Vaccines
Poultry vaccines are typically characterized as live or inactivated.
Live vaccines are available for numerous viral, bacterial, and coccidial organisms.

6. Live vaccines are widely used throughout the world because they are commonly effective when mass applied, and they are relatively economical. Immunity from live vaccines is generally short-lived, particularly following initial exposure. Some exceptions to this exist for vaccines such as Laryngotracheitis, Fowl Pox, and Marek’s Disease.

7. For live vaccines to work as they were designed, they must be stored, mixed, dosed, and applied appropriately. Storage of live vaccines is generally in a dark, refrigerated area. Liquid nitrogen freezing of live vaccines preserves and prolongs cell culture viability that is essential for cell associated vaccines such as Marek’s disease vaccines.

8. Licensed live vaccines have an expiration date printed on the vial that, if stored according to label directions, ensures that the appropriate minimum dose is maintained through the dating period. Shelf life varies widely on live vaccines but most generally are licensed with 18 months to 2 years dating.

9. Mixing directions also vary widely, but many recommend the use of a water stabilizer such as powdered skim milk. Water stabilizers minimize some of the negative effects of residual chlorine, metals, and high temperature on the reconstituted virus.

10. The dose needed to get an appropriate immune response from a live vaccine is frequently dependent on the virus, genetic background of the bird, age of the bird, existing circulating antibody within the bird, and the method to be used when applying a vaccine.

11. Vaccines generally are licensed based on protection studies performed in an SPF type leghorn bird, absent of any circulating antibody to that particular agent, at the youngest age on the label, and at the minimum titer expected at the end of the dating period allowed for each given vaccine.

12. With all these variables, it is not hard to imagine why clinical veterinarians and other health professionals may adjust dosages of live vaccines according to local field conditions.

13. Severe vaccine reactions or insufficient protection can result from misjudging any of these variables.
Poultry house conditions and local disease risks need to be taken into account when optimizing the use of live vaccines.

14. Inactivated vaccines or killed vaccines
Inactivated vaccines or killed vaccines used in poultry are generally whole bacteria or virus preparations combined with an adjuvant that are designed for subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. They are frequently, but not always, used in commercial egg layer and breeding birds to stimulate long-lasting immunity and/or antibody levels to specific antigens.

15. Inactivated vaccines generally consist of two distinct components, often referred to as aqueous and adjuvant phases, emulsified into a homologous liquid. The aqueous phase contains the antigen, and the adjuvant generally enhances the bird’s response to this antigen.

16. Injection of humans that are administering these inactivated vaccines should be avoided. Serious injuries have been reported from accidentally injecting vaccine into a finger or hand. The site of injection can become swollen, red, and painful, and the function of the area may be affected.

17. General characteristics of live and inactivated vaccines for poultry.
Live vaccines
Inactivated vaccines
Smaller quantity of antigen. Vaccination response relies on multiplication within the bird.
Large amount of antigen. No multiplication after administration.
Can be mass administered—drinking water, spray.
Almost always injected.
Adjuvanting live vaccines is not common.
Adjuvanting killed vaccines is frequently necessary.
Susceptible to existing antibody present in bird.
More capable of eliciting an immune response in the face of
existing antibody.

18. General characteristics of live and inactivated vaccines for poultry.
Live vaccines
Inactivated vaccines
Danger of vaccine contamination
No danger of vaccine contamination.
Tissue reactions—commonly referred to as a “vaccine reaction” is possible and frequently visible in a variety of tissues.
No microbe replication; therefore, no tissue reaction outside that which is adjuvant dependent.
Relatively limited combinations—due to interference of multiple
microbes given at the same time
Combinations are less likely to interfere.
Rapid onset of immunity.
Generally slower onset of immunity.

19. Vaccine Delivery Systems
Improper vaccine application is the most common reason vaccines and vaccine programs fail.

20. The most commonly used application techniques in commercial poultry include :
in-ovo at 17—19 days of embryonation, subcutaneous or intramuscular injection at day of hatch, spray in the hatchery, intraocular or nasal drop in the hatchery or on the farm, spray on the farm, through the drinking water on the farm, wing web stab, and subcutaneous or intramuscular injection on the farm.

21. In Ovo Vaccination
In ovo vaccination is performed during the process of transferring incubating eggs in the hatchery from the setter to the hatcher. After poking a hole in the shell, vaccine, most frequently Marek’s disease vaccine, is injected just under the membranes at the floor of the air cell.

22. Subcutaneous or Intramuscular Injection at Day of Hatch
Day-old vaccination, most commonly using Marek’s disease vaccine, is generally accomplished by giving 0.2 ml of vaccine subcutaneously under the skin at the back of the neck or 0.5 ml intramuscularly in the leg.

23. Improper positioning of the chick or a bent needle can result in damage to the neck muscles or vertebrae. A dye is frequently mixed with the vaccine to allow visualization of the vaccine under the skin after injection.

24. Spray in the Hatchery
Spray vaccination of birds in the hatchery generally is done using a spray box that is triggered each time a box of chicks is placed inside or an inline spray cabinet that sprays boxes as they move down a controlled speed conveyor line in an automated hatchery.

25. Spray vaccination in the hatchery generally works well if the droplets generated have a particle diameter of approximately 100—150 microns. Particle size is very important.

26. Spray Vaccination on the Farm
With the increased acceptance and use of closed watering systems and the increased cost of labor required to effectively vaccinate through the drinking water, spray vaccination of respiratory vaccines, such as Newcastle disease virus and infectious bronchitis virus, has become increasingly popular.

27. This method of vaccination frequently uses spray equipment adapted from insecticide and pesticide application technologies. As with the hatchery spray vaccination, the method is designed to mimic eye-drop vaccination but allows the vaccinator to avoid handling each bird in the poultry house.

28. Intraocular or Nasal Drop in the Hatchery or on the Farm
Intraocular or nasal drop is a highly effective but labor-intensive method used to deliver respiratory disease vaccines for diseases such as laryngotracheitis. This method generally involves depositing approximately 0.03ml of reconstituted vaccine in the eye or nares.

29. Both techniques generally require the vaccinator to pause briefly as the vaccine disappears in the appropriate opening. A dye colored diluent helps to visualize the vaccine and allows a quality check on technique by looking around the nares or eye for dye.

30. Drinking Water Vaccination on the Farm
A very common and useful technique in commercial poultry has been to apply vaccine through the drinking water. Proper preparation of the watering system to be used through removal of all disinfectants, such as chlorine, should be done two days prior to vaccination.

31. It is best to buffer the system by flushing it with a weak solution of powdered skim milk, generally 1 cup powdered skim milk to 50 gallons of water. This type of buffer generally also is used while administering the vaccine.

32. Best results are achieved through a process that creates a mild degree of thirst by eliminating access to drinking water for approximately two hours prior to the vaccination procedure.

33. Wing Web Stab
Wing web vaccination requires individual bird handling but can be done relatively rapidly. There are two commonly used wing web application tools. The first is the traditional small plastic handle approximately 3 cm long that has two solid stainless steel prongs, approximately 2 cm long, with a bevel on each prong toward the needle end.

34. The second newer application tool is referred to as a Grant inoculator
The second newer application tool is referred to as a Grant inoculator. This tool has a selfcontained reservoir for vaccine, most often fowl pox or fowl cholera, in which a needle passes through loading a new dose of vaccine for each bird inoculated.

35. Wing web vaccination technique can be checked by returning to the vaccinated flock 7—10 days after vaccination and palpating the wing web area for nodular scabs or granulomas. These areas created by the vaccine are commonly referred to as “takes.” Proper vaccination technique frequently results in 95—100% take.

36. Subcutaneous or Intramuscular Injection on the Farm
Subcutaneous and intramuscular injections are frequently used in breeder pullets and commercial egg-laying pullets prior to egg production.
These vaccines are generally recommended for use at least 4 weeks prior to the onset of egg production to minimize any adverse effect the handling may have on egg production performance.