1. 4. Layers and MEMS technologies
Recent development of MEMS and sensors technology is essentially based on micromachinig. This technology consists of specific design and fabrication processes, many of which are borrowed from the integrated circuit industry.
The important feature of micromachining, leading to manufacturing costs reduction is batch fabrication, i.e. simultaneous manufacturing of hundreds or thousans of identical structures.
Gas sensors fabricated on 3” silicon wafer
Schematic process flow in micromachining.
It is repeated until completion of a microstructure. 1

2. 1. Film Deposition Processes
In technology of MEMS and sensors one of the main steps is deposition of thin films of materials in interest.
Deposition technology can be classified in two groups:
Depositions with the help of chemical reactions:
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
Electrodeposition
Epitaxy
Thermal oxidation
These processes exploit the creation of solid materials directly from chemical reactions in gas and/or liquid compositions or with the substrate material. The solid material is usually not the only product formed by the reaction.
Byproducts can include gases, liquids and even other solids.
Depositions that happen because of a physical process:
Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
Casting
The material deposited is physically moved on to the substrate. 2 2

3. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD)
On the substrate placed inside a reactor a solid material condenses due to chemical reactions between source gases introduced into the reactor.
The two most important CVD technologies are the Low Pressure CVD (LPCVD) and Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD).
The LPCVD process produces layers with excellent uniformity of thickness and material characteristics.
The main problems with the process are the high deposition temperature (higher than 600°C) and the relatively slow deposition rate.
The material is deposited on both sides of the substrates (wafers).
Typical hot-wall LPCVD reactor 3 3

4. PECVD
The PECVD process can operate at lower temperatures (down to 300° C) thanks to the extra energy supplied to the gas molecules by the plasma in the reactor.
However, the quality of the films tend to be inferior to processes running at higher temperatures. The material is deposited on one side of the wafers.
Typical PECVD reactor
Top electrode RF driven (MHz);  
Substrate sits directly on heated electrode 
Gas injected into process chamber via gas inlet in the top electrode 
Operating pressure ca. 1 Torr 4 4

5. Electrodeposition (electroplating)
Essentially restricted to deposition of electrically conductive materials
(metals: copper, gold, nickel).
The plating process can be also electroless – external electric field and conductive surface not required – thickness and uniformity of a deposit difficult to control.
Si wafer plated
with Cu using copper sulphate
Example solutions
for electroplating
selected metals
Typical setup for electrodeposition.
When an electrical potential is applied between a conducting area on the substrate and a counter electrode (usually platinum) in the liquid, a chemical redox process takes place resulting in the formation of a layer of material on the substrate and usually some gas generation at the counter electrode. 5 5

6. Epitaxial growth
If the substrate is an ordered crystal, it is possible to grow on it the material with
the same crystallographic orientation, which is known as epitaxy.
Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE) is the most important process in which the conditions
are created to support epitaxial growth.
Scheme of a typical reactor used in VPE process
In VPE a number of gases are introduced in an induction heated reactor where
only the substrate is heated. The temperature of the substrate typically must be at
least 50% of the melting point of the material to be deposited.
The high growth rate allows obtaining layers exceeding 100 µm in thickness.
This is the basic technology of production electronic c-Si and also SOI substrates. 6 6

7. Epitaxial growth Manufacturing of epitaxial Si using silane:
The silane reaction occurs at 650 °C.
SiH4 → Si + 2H2
IC grade crystalline silicon
One of the methods of manufacturing SOI (silicon-on-insulator) substrates 7 7

8. Thermal oxidation
The substrate can be oxidized in an oxygen rich atmosphere.
In the case of silicon the temperature is raised to 800° C ° which gives high
quality amorphous silicon dioxide.
The final oxide thickness can be controlled by selecting the temperature and
oxidizing conditions.
Thermal oxidation of silicon generates compressive stress in the silicon dioxide
film,as SiO2 molecules take more volume than Si atoms, and there is also a mismatch between the coefficients of thermal expansion of Si and SiO2 .
As a result, thermally grown oxide films cause bowing of the underlying substrate.
Typical view of a furnace used for wafers oxidation. 8 8

9. Evaporation
Evaporation belongs to PVD processes in which the material is released from a
source and transferred to the substrate.
In evaporation the substrate and evaporation source are placed inside a vacuum
chamber. The source material is then heated to the point where it evaporates and
the vapours condense on the substrate. Two methods of heating the source are the
most popular: e-beam heating and resistive heating.
Nearly any element (e.g.,Al, Si, Ti, Au), including many high-melting-point (refractory) metals and compounds (e.g., Cr, Mo, Ta, Pd, Pt, Ni/Cr), can be evaporated.
Deposited films consisting of more than one element may not have the same composition as the source material due to the differences in evaporation rates of constituting elements.
The compound films may then be nonstoichiometric.
Schematic view of a thermal evaporation unit with resistive heating 9 9

10. Evaporation Thermal evaporation using laser beam (PLD technology)
E-beam thermal evaporation 10 10

11. Sputtering
In sputtering, a target made of a material to be deposited is physically
bombarded by a flux of inert-gas ions (usually argon) in a vacuum chamber at a pressure of 0.1–10 Pa.
Atoms or molecules from the target are ejected and deposited onto the substrate. There are several kinds of sputtering differing by the ion excitation mechanism.
Deposition of thin films in a typical dc sputtering unit 11

12. Magnetron sputtering
Applying external magnetic field increases the ion density near the target, thus raising the deposition rates (magnetron sputtering).
Construction of the magnetron cathode 12

13. RF and Ion Beam Sputtering
In RF (radio frequency), the target and the wafer form two parallel plates with RF excitation applied to the target.
In ion-beam deposition ions are generated in a remote plasma, then accelerated at the target
RF sputtering (left) and ion source sputtering (right) 13

14. Casting
In casting the material to be deposited is dissolved in a solvent and then applied
to the substrate by spraying or spinning.
This is particularly useful for polymer materials, which may be easily dissolved in
organic solvents, and it is the common method used to apply photoresist to
substrates (in photolithography).
The thicknesses obtained range from a single monolayer of molecules (adhesion promotion) to tens of micrometers. In recent years, the casting technology has also been applied to form films of glass (SOG) materials on substrates.
Thick (5–100 μm) SOG has the ability to uniformly coat surfaces and smooth out underlying topographical variations, effectively planarizing surface features.
Solution casting and transfer printing collections of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) onto a
wide range of substrates
The spin casting process used in deposition of photoresist in photolithography. 14 14

15. 2. Lithography Lithography involves three sequential steps:
• Application of photoresist, which is a photosensitive emulsion layer;
• Optical exposure to print an image of the mask onto the resist;
• Immersion in an aqueous developer solution to dissolve the exposed resist and
render visible the latent image.
The mask itself consists of a patterned opaque chromium (the most common),
emulsion, or iron oxide layer on a transparent fused-quartz or soda-lime glass substrate.
The pattern layout is generated using a computer-aided design (CAD) tool
and transferred into the opaque layer at a specialized mask-making facility, often by
electron-beam or laser-beam writing. A complete microfabrication process normally
involves several lithographic operations with different masks. 15 15

16. Lithography – positive and negative resist
When resist is exposed to a radiation source of a specific wavelength (from UV to blue), the chemical resistance of the resist to developer solution changes.
If the resist is placed in a developer solution, it will etch away one of the two regions (exposed or unexposed).
If the exposed material is etched away by the developer and the unexposed region is resilient, the material is considered to be a positive resist.
The exact opposite process
happens in negative resists.
Transfer of a pattern to a photosensitive material. 16 16

17. Lithography – subtractive and additive processes
A photosensitive layer is often used as a temporary mask when etching an
underlying layer, so that the pattern may be transferred to the underlying layer.
Photoresist may also be used as a template for patterning material deposited after
lithography. The resist is subsequently etched away, and the material deposited on
the resist is "lifted off".
Pattern transfer from patterned photoresist to underlying layer by etching (a) and
pattern transfer from patterned photoresist to overlying layer by
lift-off (b). 17 17

18. 3. Etching
In order to form a functional MEMS structure on a substrate, it is necessary to etch the thin films previously deposited or the substrate itself.
In general, there are two classes of etching processes:
wet etching where the material is
dissolved when immersed in a
chemical solution
dry etching where the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant.
Differences between anisotropic
and isotropic wet and dry etching.
Anisotropic etching in contrast to isotropic etching means different etch rates in different directions in the material.
The example is the (111) crystal plane sidewalls that appear when etching a hole in a (100) silicon wafer in the potassium hydroxide (KOH). 18 18

19. Anisotropic etching
The etch front begins at the opening in the mask and proceeds in the <100>
direction, which is the vertical direction in (100)-oriented substrates, creating a cavity
with a flat bottom and slanted sides.
The sides are {111} planes making a 54.7º angle with respect to the horizontal (100) surface. If left in the etchant long enough,the etch ultimately self-limits on four equivalent but intersecting {111} planes, forming an inverted pyramid or V-shaped trench.
Anisotropic wet etching of silicon wafer of (100) crystallographic orientation.
Gas sensor on the silicon membrane 19

20. Dry etching
The dry etching technology can split in three separate classes called:
sputter etching, vapor phase (chemical) etching and reactive ion etching (RIE).
In sputter etching the systems used are
very similar in principle to sputtering
deposition systems but the difference is
that substrate is now subjected to the
ion bombardment instead of the target.
In vapor phase etching the material to
be etched is dissolved at the surface in
a chemical reaction with the gas
molecules (mostly isotropic process).
In RIE,under the influence of RF power
the gas molecules break into ions which
are accelerated towards, and react at,
the surface of the material being etched.
The balance of chemical and physical
etching can give sidewalls that have
vertical shapes.
Ions Ar, O2
CF4, SF6
RIE
Illustration of different dry etching processes 20 20

21. Deep Reactive Ion (DRIE) etching
In this process, etch depths of hundreds of microns can be achieved with almost
vertical sidewalls.
The primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process", where two
different gas compositions are alternated in the reactor.
The first gas composition creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the
second gas composition etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately
sputtered away by ion bombardment, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not
the sidewalls. Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of
the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching.
Profile of a DRIE trench using the Bosch process.
Etching aspect ratio (ratio of height to width) of 50 to 1 can be achieved. 21 21

22. 4. Screen printing
A wide variety of materials, including metals, chemical compopunds and ceramics, can be applied using screen printing (e.g. in sensor technology).
Screen printing begins with the production of a stencil, which is a flat, flexible
plate with solid and open areas.
The stencil has a fine-mesh screen as a bottom layer.
Separately, a paste is made of fine particles of the material of interest, along with an organic binder and a solvent. A mass of paste is applied to the stencil, then smeared along with a squeegee. A layer of paste is forced though the openings in the stencil, leaving a pattern on the underlying substrate.
Drying evaporates the solvent. Firing burns off the organic binder and sinters the remaining metal or ceramic into a solid.
Illustration of the screen printing process. 22 22

23. Screen printing Image reproduction
Thick film layers on cofired ceramic substrate used in gas sensor technology 23 23