1. Epistemic Curiosity: Its Role in Self-Directed Learning, Self-Regulation, Creativity and Problem Solving
Jordan Litman
Institute for Human and Machine Cognition
University of Maine at Machias

2. What do we mean by “Curiosity” and What is Epistemic Curiosity?
Curiosity: states of desire for new information; also individual differences in tendencies to experience or express such states (i.e., as dispositional traits)
Epistemic Curiosity (EC) is the desire for new intellectual knowledge (facts, ideas, solutions)
Individual differences in EC is expressed in seeking out new knowledge to either...
Each kind of EC is important for
Self-directed learning
Self-regulation of learning
Creative intellectual endeavors
Intellectual achievement
Stimulate emotionally positive states of interest (I-type) or
Relieve negative emotional states of feeling deprived of knowledge (D-type)
Let’s start with exactly what we mean by curiosity. [SLIDE INFO]
Whether we’re talking about transient states or individual differences, curiosity always refers to a motive for NEW INFORMATION.
Sometimes other phenomena, such as imagination or play are treated synonymous with curiosity – they may be related, but the relevant processes and subsequent information-seeking behaviors are frequently very different.
WHAT DO WE MEAN BY EPISTEMIC CURIOSITY? [SLIDE INFO]
That means gaining NEW symbolic representations of ideas, facts, concepts, to be stored in memory – we can also differentiate this from, say, wanting new sensory-perceptual experiences, or sensation seeking.
Over the last decade or so we have found that individual differences in EC is expressed in two related but distinct ways [SLIDE INFO] In other words:
I-TYPE: concerned with becoming pleasingly intellectually engaged.
D-TYPE: involves wishing to enhance clarity and reduce bothersome states of uncertainty. [click]
EC is theorized to be IMORTANT in a wide range of intellectual pursuits…

3. What do we mean by “Curiosity” and What is Epistemic Curiosity?
Curiosity: states of desire for new information; also individual differences in tendencies to experience or express such states (i.e., as dispositional traits)
Epistemic Curiosity (EC) is the desire for new intellectual knowledge (facts, ideas, solutions).
Individual differences in EC is expressed in seeking out new knowledge to either...
Our objectives are to review & discuss
Key ideas about the nature and measurement of EC and the I/D distinction
Major empirical findings in individuals, from infants to adults 
Potential applications for teachers and learners in educational and other instructional settings
Stimulate emotionally positive states of interest (I-type) or
Relieve negative emotional states of feeling deprived of knowledge (D-type)
Lets discuss in a bit more detail the nature of Epistemic curiosity and its I-type and D-type forms of expression…

4. The Nature of Epistemic Curiosity & the I/D Distinction
I-type
Enjoy exploring new ideas
Learn something new,
want to find out more
about it
Have fun discovering
new topics & subjects
D-type
Bothered when missing
correct answers or solutions
Feel unknowns must be
resolved
Focused and sustained
attention to figure
things out or
problem-solve
Here are some key distinguishing aspects of I-type and D-type EC – that is, the different ways they are experienced and expressed.
In other words
Novelty seeking vs. Sleuthing or
Thinking expansively about new ideas vs. Digging deeply into a specific problem.

5. The Nature of Epistemic Curiosity & the I/D Distinction
I-type
Enjoy exploring new ideas
Learn something new,
want to find out more
about it
Have fun discovering
new topics & subjects
D-type
Bothered when missing
correct answers or solutions
Feel unknowns must be
resolved
Focused and sustained
attention to figure
things out or
problem-solve
Desire for knowledge
Now, naturally, while there are some major differences in the way I-type and D-type EC is experienced and expressed, [TAP]
They overlap, due to a common orientation: [TAP] A common desire to obtain more knowledge.
Lets explore the ways in which they might differ in human experience a bit more in regard to [SLIDE INFO]
They overlap… but have different (1) activating conditions, (2) subjective experiences, (3) learning goals, and (4) expected reward when satiated

6. Hypothesized Differences between I-type and D-type Epistemic Curiosity
I-type EC
D-type EC .
Optimally Activated
Opportunity for Novelty seeking: When one has little or no prior knowledge.
Opportunity to Put Ideas together: When individuals have some prior knowledge and feel close to figuring something out.
Subjective Experience
learning is fun: More relaxed (“warm fuzzies”)
A need-to-know: More intense, involves some negative affect until resolved
(an “itch to be scratched”).
Learning Goals
To accurately solve problems and improve comprehension
To enjoy a new discovery
Expected Reward
Anticipated enjoyment of learning a new idea (“Oh, that’s interesting.”)
Anticipated relief from dispelling an unknown (“Ah-ha! Now I understand!”)
[CLICK]
So, this begs the question, can we measure individual differences in tendencies to experience and express these two forms of EC?
Q: Can we reliably and validly assess individual differences in learners’ tendencies to experience and express these two forms of EC?
A: YES!

7. (1) Almost Never, (2) Sometimes, (3) Often, (4) Almost Always
Measuring Individual Differences in Tendencies to Experience & Express I-type and D-type Epistemic Curiosity
Assessed with 5-item self- or other-report scales (α range ), validated in large samples cross-culturally
“For each item, give the answer that describes how you/your child generally feel(s)”
(1) Almost Never, (2) Sometimes, (3) Often, (4) Almost Always
Age Cohort
I-type EC sample items
D-type EC sample items
Young Children
(3-7)
“My child shows visible enjoyment when discovering something new”
"My child will work for a long time to solve a problem because he/she wants to know the answer."
Early Adolescents
(8-12)
“I have fun learning about a new topic or subject”
“When presented with a tough problem, I focus all of my attention on how to solve it.”
Adults
(18-70)
“I enjoy exploring new ideas”
“I can spend hours on a single problem because I just can’t rest without knowing the answer”
First – the scales. We have brief reliable, validated scales for young children through adults. Validated in several different languages and cultures.
Here are some sample items… uses a frequency scale, but we find same results using other metrics (say, 1- 7 Likert type scales)
I know what you're thinking – I see children listed, but what about infants? I promised infants.
Well, we find that there are rather distinct baby facial expressions that suggest possible early expressions of the I/D distinction…
Their potential differences have been overlooked for about 30 years – we are in very early stages of work on this. Expect more soon!
Next, let’s review some evidence of common and unique correlates of I-type and D-type EC…
Both facial expressions considered to be early markers of intellectual curiosity for years!
Latest research on infants (2-3 months)
During simple learning and attention task…
Wide eyed, focused attention
Positive vocalizations
Stable vagal tone
Furrowed brow, highly focused attention
More fussing, less soothable
Less stable vagal tone
I-type
D-type

8. I-type D-type Empirical Evidence of the I/D Distinction in EC:
Personality, Affect, Metacognition, and Knowledge-Seeking
More
Agreeable
(relaxed)
More
Aggressive
(determined)
More Intellectually Absorbed
More
Extraverted
Less
Tense
More
Tense
More Open
More
Conscientious
I-type
D-type
Partial knowing answers to questions
(“TOT” or “FOK”)
“Don’t Know” answers to
questions
Less intense Curiosity states
More intense Curiosity states
First, both scales positively correlated with scales that assess general tendencies to think and reason and actual knowledge-seeking behaviors (convergence)
Both only weakly related or uncorrelated to other constructs (e.g., sensation seeking; divergence).
Though correlated, I- and D-type EC are theorized to have very different relationships to Openness (novelty seeking) and to Conscientiousness (effort and persistence) and predict very different kinds of self-directed learning activities…
Less active knowledge-seeking
More active knowledge-seeking
Less related to seeking sensory-perceptual stimulation
Typical
Intellectual
Engagement
Need
For Cognition
Predicts arousal of State-Curiosity & Knowledge-
Seeking Behavior
(answers to fact based questions)

9. I-type D-type Empirical Evidence of the I/D Distinction in EC:
Self-directed and Self-regulated Learning & Creative Intellectual Endeavors (brainstorm, problem-solve) in School and Work
Optimism
about unknowns
Cautious
about
Unknowns
Brainstorm
& Try Out New Ideas
Seek Accurate, Actionable Answers
Enjoy Ambiguity & Mystery
Prefer Clarity & Meaningfulness
Evaluate Unknowns Very Thoughtfully
Have Fun with New Discoveries
I-type
D-type
Will “Look Before Leaping”
Will Take Risks
More Performance
Oriented & Failure Avoidant
More Mastery (interest)
Oriented
When we move on to looking at variables that assess self-directed learning, self-regulated learning, and engaging in creative learning endeavors, we see more evidence of their unique effects.
So this begs an questions about underling mechanisms – how can EC involve, depending on the circumstances, such different experiences and expressions?
Here we need to look to cutting edge work on the neuroscience of motivation and emotion, specifically in regard to subjective states of desire and subsequent reward…
Try to Enjoy Studying New Material
Flit from One New Subject to the Next
Determined &
Persistent in Learning a New Subject
Will Make Sure New Material is Understood Fully
Need
For Cognition
Typical Intellectual Engagement

10. “Wanting” & “Liking” in the Brain
Accounting for the I/D EC Distinction in EC: Hypothesized Underlying Brain Mechanisms of “Wanting” & “Liking”
“Wanting” and “Liking” are cooperative but dissociated systems in the brain.
“Wanting” = Desire and approach.
Dopamine activity in brain.
Higher levels become more uncomfortable.
“Liking” = Reward from satiation of appetites.
Opioid activity in brain
Higher levels are more pleasurable.
Dopamine and Opioids are the common neural substrates of motivation and reward!
Pleasurable stimulation can occur without much wanting, but when wanting is high, liking will be greater (Hunger is the Best Spice).
Varying levels of wanting and liking account for different subjective experiences of desire and pleasure.
“Wanting” & “Liking” in the Brain
(Berridge & Robinson, 2003)
Subjective experiences associated with varying levels of “wanting” and “liking” brain activity
And that takes us to Kent Berridge and his colleagues’ neuroscientific work on Wanting and Liking in the Brain.
Dopamine and Opioids in the brain are the common substrates of motivation and reward for Food, Water, Sex, Drugs, and even Novel Information.
Varying degrees of wanting and liking activity in the brain accounts for different subjective experiences due to varying appetites and pleasure from satiation.
Relatively low wanting but high liking would be like snacking on chips or sweets; high wanting and high liking would be like craving protein and having a juicy steak!
These two regions are the quadrants of most relevance to the I/D distinction in EC.

11. Accounting for the I/D EC Distinction in EC: Hypothesized Underlying Brain Mechanisms of “Wanting” & “Liking”
“Wanting” and “Liking” are cooperative but dissociated systems in the brain.
“Wanting” = Desire and approach.
Dopamine activity in brain.
Higher levels become more uncomfortable.
“Liking” = Reward from satiation of appetites.
Opioid activity in brain
Higher levels are more pleasurable.
Dopamine and Opioids are the common neural substrates of motivation and reward!
Pleasurable stimulation can occur without much wanting, but when wanting is high, liking will be greater (Hunger is the Best Spice).
Varying levels of wanting and liking account for different subjective experiences of desire and pleasure.
We can apply these ideas to the I/D Distinction
Subjective experiences associated with varying levels of “wanting” and “liking” activity
Relatively low wanting to liking accounts for I-type, enjoyment and fun from new discoveries, with little tension
--it also accounts for aesthetic enjoyment, which is similar.
Relatively high wanting and high subsequent liking accounts for D-type as a “a need to know”, when the progressively irritating itch of uncertainty must be scratched with correct answers!
Thus the neuroscience of wanting and liking map beautifully onto the I/D differences we have discussed.
The critical follow-up question is:
****Is there any evidence of the role of dopamine in the arousal of curiosity and any evidence for the role of opioid in discovery or problem-solving when curious?
Answer: Yes!

12. Evidence of the Hypothesized Underlying Wanting & Liking Brain Mechanisms
The social-affective neuroscience of curiosity is still very much in its infancy as an area of scientific inquiry…
Animal research (Bardo et al,1990’s; Bevins et al 2000’s; Panksepp et al, 2000’s): Dopamine and opioid activation associated with investigation and exploration in animals…
Beiderman and colleagues ( ) opioid activity occurs when we learn new information and connect it to knowledge in memory…
The social-affective neuroscience of curiosity is still very much in its infancy as an area of scientific inquiry…
But we do have a great deal of evidence gathered over the past few decades that strongly support Wanting and Liking pathways in the brain are involved in the stimulation of curiosity in the brain, both in terms of animal exploration and human intellectual curiosity.
Let’s finish up with some thoughts on applying what we know so far about Epistemic Curiosity, and think about how it might be important to keep it in mind in instructional settings – the very settings where EC will most likely be activated.
Gruber et al (2015) –Dopamine activity is correlated with curiosity to find out answers to questions…
Much more interdisciplinary work is needed among researchers in Emotion, Motivation, Personality Neuroscience, Cognition, Education, etc.

13. Future Applications & Potential Implications: Assess Preexisting Levels of I-type and D-type EC, then Help Individuals Learn to better Utilize their Epistemic Curiosity
Bloom-based
Taxonomic
Webb
Depth of Knowledge
I- type Experiences/
Expressions
D- type Experiences/
Possible EC Exercises
Knowledge &
Remembering
Want knowledge that leads to new ideas.
Want knowledge that builds on what is known.
Consider brainstorming vs. re-defining and re-categorizing.
Recall &
Reproduction
Identify completely new ways of explaining concepts.
Identify knowledge-gaps; estimate what else is needed to make sense.
Consider underexplored domains vs. putting together available facts for a comprehensive explanation.
Understanding
Skills &
Concepts
Develop new approaches to using knowledge
Modify or re-structure knowledge to improve its usefulness.
Applying
Consider whether its better to try a totally new approach or innovate an existing one.
Analyzing
Strategic
Thinking
Open to taking chances expecting serendipitous discoveries.
Weighs potential costs vs. benefits; plans ahead.
Consider whether it is better to be daring or cautious in moving forward on a learning goal.
First, we would want to assess learners’ levels of I-type and D-type EC to get an idea of their natural tendencies using the two 5-item self- or other-report scales I had mentioned previously.
Based on that assessment, as educators we can make learners more aware of their natural levels of I-type and D-type EC,
and from there, help them become more flexible and creative by helping them to “exercise” their Epistemic Curiosity!
To give this some meaningful context I structured some examples terms of major instructional theories that compliment each other by Bloom and by Webb.
Assessment and suggested applications in real world settings should guide us to develop methods of training individuals to become more flexible in applying I- and D-type EC tendencies effectively!
Synthesis/
Evaluating
Welcomes new challenges; “fly by the seat of one’s pants.”
Prefers thoughtful review, and testing before moving to conclusions.
Consider different ways of tracking whether learning objectives have been met and what to try next.
Extended
Thinking
Creating
Thoughts on adding breadth to the understanding of a subject.
Thoughts on adding depth to the understanding of a subject.
Consider what will be learned by trying, whether through discovery or digging deeply. Which is most critical in this case?

14. Want more information about Epistemic Curiosity?
Whether feeing interested and wish to broadly explore… or
Quite intrigued with specific questions you need answered…
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for reprints, more details on studies and projects in development, free assessment tools, and interest in collaboration!
Thank you for your time!