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Anatol Rapoport Publications
Rapoport's books and articles include:

1960, Fights, Games, and Debates, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor

1965, Prisoner's Dilemma, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.(co-author; Albert M. Chammah)

1966, Two-Person Game Theory: The Essential Ideas, Ann Arbor, MI, The University of Michigan Press.(republication with Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 1999).

1969, Strategy and Conscience, Shocken Books, New York, NY. (first published in 1964)

1970, N-Person Game Theory. Concepts and Applications", University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. MI.(republication with Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 2001).

1974, Conflict in Man-made Environment', Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.

1986, General System Theory. Essential Concepts and Applications, Abacus, Tunbridge Wells.

1989, The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict, Paragon House, New York.

1992, Peace: An Idea, Whose Time Has Come, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.

1998, Decision theory and decision behaviour, Macmillan, Houndmills.

2000, Certainties and Doubts : A Philosophy of Life, Black Rose Books, Montreal, 2000: His autobiography.

2005, Conversations with Three Russians - Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Lenin. A Systemic View on Two Centuries of Societal Evolution, Kovac, Hamburg.

1953, "Spread of information through a population with sociostructural bias: I. Assumption of transitivity." in: Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 15,

1956, with Ralph W. Gerard and Clyde Kluckhohn, "Biological and cultural evolution: Some analogies and explorations". Behavioral Science 1: 6-34.

1957, "Contribution to the Theory of Random and Biased Nets." in: Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 19:

1960 with W.J. Horvath, "The theoretical channel capacity of a single neuron as determined by various coding systems", in: Information and Control, 3(4):

1962, "The Use and Misuse of Game Theory", in: Scientific American, 207:

1963, "Mathematical models of social interaction". In R. D. Luce, R. R. Bush, & E. Galanter (Eds.), Handbook of Mathematical Psychology (Vol. II, pp. 493–579). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

1974, with Lawrence B. Slobodkin, "An optimal strategy of evolution". Q. Rev. Biol. 49:

1979, "Some Problems Relating to Randomly Constructed Biased Networks." Perspectives on Social Network Research:

1989, with Y. Yuan, "Some Aspects of Epidemics and Social Nets." Pp. 327–348 in The Small World, ed. by Manfred Kochen. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Ron Csillag,"Anatol Rapoport, Academic " Toronto Globe and Mail, January 31, 2007, p. S7

Chesmak Farhoumand-Sims, "Memories of Anatol Rapoport." Peace Magazine, April 2007, p. 14

Alisa Ferguson, "Rapoport was Renowned Mathematical Psychologist, Peace Activist." University of Toronto Bulletin, February 20, 2007.

Markus Schwaninger, "Obituary Anatol Rapoport (May 22, January 20, 2007): Pioneer of Systems Theory and Peace Research, Mathematician, Philosopher and Pianist." Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Vol. 24, 2007, pp

Anatol Rapoport Biography
Rapoport was born in Lozоvaya, Kharkov Governorate, Russia (in today's Kharkiv Oblast, Ukraine). In 1922, he came to the United States, and in 1928 he became a naturalized citizen. He started studying music in Chicago and continued with piano, conducting and composition at the Vienna Hochschule für Musik where he studied from 1929 to However, due to the rise of Nazism, he found it impossible to make a career as a pianist.

He shifted his career into mathematics, getting a Ph.D. degree in mathematics under Otto Schilling and Abraham Adrian Albert at the University of Chicago in 1941 on the thesis Construction of Non-Abelian Fields with Prescribed Arithmetic. According to the Toronto Globe and Mail, he was a member of the American Communist Party for three years, but quit before enlisting in the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1941, serving in Alaska and India during World War II.

After the war, he joined the Committee on Mathematical Biology at the University of Chicago (1947–54), publishing his first book, Science and the Goals of Man, co-authored with semanticist S. I. Hayakawa in He also received a one-year fellowship at the prestigious Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in Stanford, California.

In 1970 Rapoport moved to Toronto to avoid the war-making ways of the Vietnam-era United States

In 1954 Anatol Rapoport cofounded the Society for General Systems Research, along with the researchers Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Ralph Gerard, and Kenneth Boulding. He became president of the Society for General Systems Research in 1965.

Anatol Rapoport died of pneumonia in Toronto. He is survived by his wife Gwen, daughter Anya, and sons Alexander and Anthony.

Anatol Rapoport Work Rapoport contributed to general systems theory, mathematical biology, and to the mathematical modeling of social interaction and stochastic models of contagion. He combined his mathematical expertise with psychological insights into the study of , social networks, and semantics.

Anatol Rapoport Work Rapoport extended these understandings into studies of psychological conflict, dealing with nuclear disarmament and international politics. His autobiography, Certainties and Doubts: A Philosophy of Life, was published in 2001.

Anatol Rapoport Game theory
Rapoport had a versatile mind, working in mathematics, psychology, biology, game theory, , and peace and conflict studies. For example, he pioneered in the modeling of parasitism and symbiosis, researching cybernetic theory. This went on to give a conceptual basis for his lifelong work in conflict and cooperation.

Among many other well-known books on fights, games, violence, and peace, Rapoport was the author of over 300 articles and of "Two-Person Game Theory" (1966) and "N-Person Game Theory" (2001). He analyzed contests in which there are more than two sets of conflicting interests, such as war, diplomacy, poker, or bargaining. His work led him to peace research, including books on The Origins of Violence (1989) and Peace, An Idea Whose Time Has Come (1993).

Rapoport's entry, Tit-For-Tat has only four lines of code

His children report that he was a strong chess player but a bad poker player because he non-verbally revealed the strength of his hands.

Anatol Rapoport Social network analysis
Rapoport's empirical work traced the spread of information within a school

Anatol Rapoport Conflict and peace studies
According to Thomas Homer-Dixon in the Toronto Globe and Mail, Rapoport "became anti-militarist quite soon after the war

When Rapoport began, there was one (unpaid) professor and twelve students

Rapoport's students report that he was an engaged and inspiring professor who captured their attention, imagination and interest with his wide-ranging knowledge, passion for the subject, good humor, kind and generous spirit, attentiveness to student concerns, and animated teaching style.

Professor Rapoport was also a member of the editorial board of the International Scholarly Journal of Environmental Peace published by the International Innovation Projects at the University of Toronto edited by Biswajit (Bob) Ganguly and Roger I

Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence - Cell senescence—ApoptoSENS
Cell killing with suicide genes or vaccines is suggested for making the cells undertake apoptosis.

Neurodegeneration - Apoptosis (type I)
Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death in multicellular organisms. It is one of the main types of programmed cell death (PCD) and involves a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell morphology and death.

*'Extrinsic apoptotic pathways:' Occur when factors outside the cell activate cell surface death receptors (e.g. Fas) which result in the activation of caspases-8 or -10.

*'Intrinsic apoptotic pathways:' result from mitochondrial release of cytochrome c or endoplasmic reticulum malfunctions both of which lead to the activation of caspase-9. The cell nucleus|nucleus and Golgi apparatus are other organelles that have damage sensors which can lead the cells down apoptotic pathways.

Caspases (cysteine-aspartic acid proteases) cleave at very specific amino acid residues. There are two types of caspases: 'initiators' and 'effectors'. Initiator caspases cleave inactive forms of effector caspases. This activates the effectors which in turn cleave other proteins resulting in apoptotic initiation.

Apoptosis 'Apoptosis' ( or ) ([ American Heritage Dictionary]) is the process of programmed cell death (PCD) that may occur in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (Morphology (biology)|morphology) and death. These changes include Bleb (cell biology)|blebbing, cell shrinkage, Cell nucleus|nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosome|chromosomal DNA Apoptotic DNA fragmentation|fragmentation.

Apoptosis Unlike necrosis, apoptosis produces cell fragments called apoptotic bodies that phagocytic cells are able to engulf and quickly remove before the contents of the cell can spill out onto surrounding cells and cause damage.

Apoptosis Between 50 and 70 1,000,000,000 (number)|billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. For an average child between the ages of 8 and 14, approximately 20 billion to 30 billion cells die a day.

Apoptosis Research in and around apoptosis has increased substantially since the early 1990s. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in an extensive variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes atrophy, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer.

Apoptosis - Discovery and etymology
elegans and these same genes function in humans for apoptosis.

Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second p silent ( ) and the second p pronounced (),[ Webster.com dictionary entry] as in the original Greek

In the original Kerr Wyllie and Currie paper, British Journal of Cancer, 1972 Aug;26(4):239-57, there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation:

The word apoptosis () is used in Greek to describe the dropping off or falling off of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees

Apoptosis - Process A number of cellular components, such as poly ADP ribose polymerase, may also help regulate apoptosis.

Apoptosis - Process Another extrinsic pathway for initiation identified in several toxin studies is an increase in calcium concentration within a cell caused by drug activity, which also can cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain.

Apoptosis - Mitochondrial regulation
Nitric oxide (NO): an effector of apoptosis

SMAC binds to Inhibitor of apoptosis|inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and deactivates them, preventing the IAPs from arresting the apoptotic process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed

The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of caspase-9, which in turn activates the effector caspase-3.

Bcl-2 proteins are able to promote or inhibit apoptosis by direct action on MAC/MOMPP

Apoptosis - Direct signal transduction
Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the TNF-induced (tumour necrosis factor) model and the Fas-Fas ligand-mediated model, both involving receptors of the TNF receptor (TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals.

Apoptosis - TNF path The link between TNF and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases.

Apoptosis - TNF path In other types of cells (type II), the Fas-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8.

Apoptosis - Common components
Control of proapoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of nonapoptotic cells is incompletely understood, but in general, Bax or Bak are activated by the activation of BH3-only proteins, part of the Bcl-2 family.

Apoptosis - Caspases Caspases play the central role in the transduction of DR apoptotic signals

Apoptosis - Caspase-independent apoptotic pathway
There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor).

Apoptosis - Execution Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but there is only one mechanism that actually causes the death of a cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic caspases. A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a characteristic morphology:

Apoptosis - Execution #Cell shrinkage and rounding are shown because of the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases.Böhm I. Disruption of the cytoskeleton after apoptosis induction by autoantibodies. Autoimmunity 2003;36:

Apoptosis - Execution #Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the nuclear envelope (also known as the perinuclear envelope) in a process known as pyknosis, a hallmark of apoptosis.

Apoptosis - Execution #The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis. The nucleus breaks into several discrete chromatin bodies or nucleosomal units due to the degradation of DNA.

Apoptosis - Execution #The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as bleb (cell biology)|blebs.

Apoptosis - Execution Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic laddered appearance on agar gel after electrophoresis. Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from Ischemia|ischemic or toxic cell death.

Apoptosis - Removal of dead cells
Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a protein known as scramblase

Apoptosis - Pathway knock-outs
APAF-1 cells are protected from apoptosis stimuli such as irradiation

Apoptosis - Pathway knock-outs
A remarkable feature of these KO mice is that they have a very restricted phenotype: Casp3, 9, APAF-1 KO mice have deformations of neural tissue and FADD and Casp 8 KO showed defective heart development, however in both types of KO other organs developed normally and some cell types were still sensitive to apoptotic stimuli suggesting that unknown proapoptotic pathways exist.

Apoptosis - Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic (necroptotic) cells
In order to perform analysis of apoptotic versus necrotic (necroptotic) one can do analysis of morphology by time-lapse microscopy, flow fluorocytometry, and transmission electron microscopy

Apoptosis - Methods for distinguishing apoptotic from necrotic (necroptotic) cells
A selection of techniques that can be used to distinguish apoptosis from necroptotic cells could be found in these references.

Apoptosis - Defective pathways
A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: the normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis

Apoptosis - Defective pathways
As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and proapoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die.

Apoptosis - Dysregulation of p53
Any disruption to the regulation of the p53 or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors.

Apoptosis - Inhibition
As a result, the malignant cells experience an abnormal response to apoptosis induction: cycle regulating genes (such as p53, ras or c-myc) are mutated or inactivated in diseased cells, and further genes (such as bcl-2) also modify their expression in tumors.

Apoptosis - HeLa cell Defects in the cell cycle are thought to be responsible for certain tumor cells resisting chemotherapy or radiation, so a virus that can induce apoptosis despite defects in the cell cycle is useful for cancer treatment.

Apoptosis - Treatments
Many different methods can be used either to stimulate or inhibit apoptosis in various places along the death signaling pathway.

Apoptosis is a multi-step, multi-pathway cell-death programme that is inherent in every cell of the body. In cancer, the apoptosis cell-division ratio is altered. Cancer treatment by chemotherapy and irradiation kills target cells primarily by inducing apoptosis.

Apoptosis - Hyperactive apoptosis
In the case of HIV, CD4+ lymphocytes die at an accelerated rate through uncontrolled apoptosis, when stimulated.

NF-κB has been found to play both an antiapoptotic role and proapoptotic role depending on the stimuli utilized and the cell type.

Apoptosis - HIV progression
The progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection into AIDS is primarily due to the depletion of T helper cell|CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes in a manner that is too rapid for the body's bone marrow to replenish the cells, leading to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways:

#HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic Bcl-2. This does not directly cause cell death, but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received. In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic procaspase-8, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis.

#HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins which prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis.

#HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane.

#Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby bystander T helper cells.

#HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue.

Cells may also die as a direct consequence of viral infection. HIV-1 expression induces tubular cell G2/M arrest and apoptosis.Vashistha H, Husain M, Kumar D, Yadav A, Arora S, Singhal PC. (2008)Ren Fail. 2008;30(6): The progression from HIV to AIDS is not immediate or even necessarily rapid; HIV's cytotoxic activity towards CD4+ lymphocytes is classified as AIDS once a given patient's CD4+ cell count falls below 200.

Apoptosis - Viral infection
Viral induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several cells of a living organism is infected with a virus leading to cell death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of cells.

Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including:

*Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as Natural Killer and cytotoxic T cells) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is known to cause apoptosis in central nervous system and lymphoid tissue of infected dogs in vivo and in vitro.

This change in the caspase cascade suggests CDV induces apoptosis via the intrinsic apoptosis|intrinsic pathway, excluding the need for the initiator caspase-8

The Oropouche virus (OROV) is found in the family Bunyaviridae. The study of apoptosis brought on by Bunyaviridae was initiated in 1996 when it was observed that apoptosis was induced by the La Crosse virus into the kidney cells of baby hamsters and into the brains of baby mice.

OROV is a disease that is transmitted between humans by the biting midge (Culicoides paraensis). It is referred to as a zoonotic arbovirus and causes febrile illness, characterized by the onset of a sudden fever known as Oropouche fever.

The Oropouche virus also causes disruption in cultured cells - cells which are cultivated in distinct and specific conditions. An example of this can be seen in HeLa cells whereby the cells begin to degenerate shortly after they are infected.

With the use of gel electrophoresis, it can be observed that OROV causes DNA fragmentation in HeLa cells. It can be interpreted by counting, measuring and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population. When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the cytochrome C is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.

In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary. Apoptosis in some viruses is activated by extracellular stimuli, however, studies have demonstrated that the OROV infection causes apoptosis to be activated through intracellular stimuli and involves the mitochondria.

Consequently p53 cannot induce apoptosis since it cannot induce the expression of proapoptotic proteins

Viruses can remain intact from apoptosis particularly in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the apoptotic bodies that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus.

Apoptosis - Plants Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name apoptosis (as opposed to the more general programmed cell death) is unclear.

Apoptosis - Caspase independent apoptosis
et al, BAX-induced cell death may not require interleukin 1β-converting enzyme-likeproteases, 1996, cell biology Later studies linked this phenomenon to the release of AIF (Apoptosis-inducing factor|apoptosis inducing factor) from the mitochondria and its translocation into the nucleus mediated by its NLS (nuclear localization signal)

Apoptosis - Apoptosis protein subcellular location prediction
In 2003, a method was developed for predicting subcellular location of apoptosis proteins.Zhou, G. P. Doctor, K. (2003). Subcellular location prediction of apoptosis proteins. PROTEINS: Structure, Function, and Genetics 50,

Subsequently, various modes of Chou's pseudo amino acid composition were developed for improving the quality of predicting subcellular localization of apoptosis proteins based on their sequence information alone.

Ding, Y. S. Zhang, T. L. (2008). Using Chou's pseudo amino acid composition to predict subcellular localization of apoptosis proteins: an approach with immune genetic algorithm-based ensemble classifier. Pattern Recognition Letters 29,

Jiang, X., Wei, R., Zhang, T. L. Gu, Q. (2008). Using the concept of Chou's pseudo amino acid composition to predict apoptosis proteins subcellular location: an approach by approximate entropy. Protein Peptide Letters 15,

Lin, H., Wang, H., Ding, H., Chen, Y. L. Li, Q. Z. (2009). Prediction of Subcellular Localization of Apoptosis Protein Using Chou's Pseudo Amino Acid Composition. Acta Biotheoretica 57,

DNA repair - Senescence and apoptosis
Therefore, the induction of senescence and apoptosis is considered to be part of a strategy of protection against cancer.

Cell death - Apoptosis It is also becoming clear that mitosis and apoptosis are toggled or linked in some way and that the balance achieved depends on signals received from appropriate growth or survival factors.

Ecology - Metapopulations and migration
Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms

Ecology - Metapopulations and migration
Ecologists use a mixture of computer models and field study|field studies to explain metapopulation structure.

English plural - Apophonic plurals
The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the singular (these are sometimes called mutated plurals):

This group consists of words that historically belong to the Old English consonantal declension, see . There are many compounds of man and woman that form their plurals in the same way: postmen, policewomen, etc.

When referring to the computer mouse, both mouses and mice are accepted.

The plural of mongoose is mongooses. Mongeese is wrong, as it is a back-formation by mistaken analogy to goose / geese. It is often used in a jocular context.

Anatol Rapoport 'Anatol Rapoport' (; May 22, 1911January 20, 2007) was a Russian-born United States|American mathematical psychology|mathematical psychologist. He contributed to general systems theory, mathematical biology and to the mathematical modeling of social interaction and stochastic models of contagion.

Anatol Rapoport - Biography
However, due to the rise of Nazism, he found it impossible to make a career as a pianist.Alisa Ferguson, Rapoport was Renowned Mathematical Psychologist, Peace Activist, University of Toronto Bulletin, February 20, 2007

Anatol Rapoport - Biography
United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps in 1941, serving in Alaska and India during World WarII.Ron Csillag,Anatol Rapoport, Academic

Anatol Rapoport - Work Rapoport extended these understandings into studies of psychological conflict, dealing with nuclear weapon|nuclear Arms control|disarmament and international politics. His autobiography, Certainties and Doubts: A Philosophy of Life, was published in 2001.

Anatol Rapoport - Game theory
Rapoport had a versatile mind, working in mathematics, psychology, biology, game theory, social network analysis, and peace and conflict studies. For example, he pioneered in the modeling of parasitism and symbiosis, researching Cybernetics|cybernetic theory. This went on to give a conceptual basis for his lifelong work in conflict and cooperation.

Among many other well-known books on fights, games, violence, and peace, Rapoport was the author of over 300 articles and of Two-Person Game Theory (1966) and Game theory#Many-player and population games|N-Person Game Theory (2001). He analyzed contests in which there are more than two sets of conflicting interests, such as war, diplomacy, poker, or bargaining. His work led him to peace research, including books on The Origins of Violence (1989) and Peace, An Idea Whose Time Has Come (1993).

Rapoport's entry, Tit for tat|Tit-For-Tat has only four lines of code

Anatol Rapoport - Social network analysis
Rapoport's empirical work traced the spread of information within a school

Anatol Rapoport - Conflict and peace studies
According to Thomas Homer-Dixon in the Toronto Globe and Mail, Rapoport became anti-militarist quite soon after the World War II|war

Anatol Rapoport - Publications
* 1960, Fights, Games, and Debates, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor

* 1965, Prisoner's Dilemma, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.(co-author; Albert M. Chammah)

* 1966, Two-Person Game Theory: The Essential Ideas, Ann Arbor, MI, The University of Michigan Press.(republication with Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 1999).

* 1969, Strategy and Conscience, Shocken Books, New York, NY. (first published in 1964)

* 1970, N-Person Game Theory. Concepts and Applications, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. MI.(republication with Dover Press, Mineola, NY, 2001).

* 1974, Conflict in Man-made Environment', Harmondsworth, Penguin Books.

* 1975, Semantics, Crowell, 1975.This book about general semantics along the lines of S.I. Hayakawa's Language in Thought and Action and more technical (mathematical and philosophical) material. A valuable survey.

* 1986, General System Theory. Essential Concepts and Applications, Abacus, Tunbridge Wells.

* 1989, The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict, Paragon House, New York.

* 1992, Peace: An Idea, Whose Time Has Come, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.

* 1998, Decision theory and decision behaviour, Macmillan, Houndmills.

* 2000, Certainties and Doubts : A Philosophy of Life, Black Rose Books, Montreal, 2000: His autobiography.

* 2005, Conversations with Three Russians - Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Lenin. A Systemic View on Two Centuries of Societal Evolution, Kovac, Hamburg.

* 1953, Spread of information through a population with sociostructural bias: I. Assumption of transitivity. in: Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 15,

* 1956, with Ralph W. Gerard and Clyde Kluckhohn, Biological and cultural evolution: Some analogies and explorations. Behavioral Science 1: 6-34.

* 1957, Contribution to the Theory of Random and Biased Nets. in: Bulletin of Mathematical Biology 19:

* 1960 with W.J. Horvath, The theoretical channel capacity of a single neuron as determined by various coding systems, in: Information and Control, 3(4):

* 1962, The Use and Misuse of Game Theory, in: Scientific American, 207:

* 1963, Mathematical models of social interaction. In R. D. Luce, R. R. Bush, E. Galanter (Eds.), Handbook of Mathematical Psychology (Vol. II, pp.493–579). New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.

* 1974, with Lawrence B. Slobodkin, An optimal strategy of evolution. Q. Rev. Biol. 49:

* 1979, Some Problems Relating to Randomly Constructed Biased Networks. Perspectives on Social Network Research:

* 1989, with Y. Yuan, Some Aspects of Epidemics and Social Nets. Pp.327–348 in The Small World, ed. by Manfred Kochen. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

* Ron Csillag,Anatol Rapoport, Academic Toronto Globe and Mail, January 31, 2007, p. S7

* Chesmak Farhoumand-Sims, Memories of Anatol Rapoport. Peace Magazine, April 2007, p.14

* Alisa Ferguson, Rapoport was Renowned Mathematical Psychologist, Peace Activist. University of Toronto Bulletin, February 20, 2007.

* Markus Schwaninger, Obituary Anatol Rapoport (May 22, January 20, 2007): Pioneer of Systems Theory and Peace Research, Mathematician, Philosopher and Pianist. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, Vol. 24, 2007, pp.655–658.

Phagocytosis - In apoptosis
Following apoptosis, the dying cells need to be taken up into the surrounding tissues by macrophages in a process called efferocytosis. One of the features of an apoptotic cell is the presentation of a variety of intracellular molecules on the cell surface, such as calreticulin, phosphatidylserine (From the inner layer of the plasma membrane), annexin A1, and oxidised LDL.

Phagocytosis - In apoptosis
Accumulation of apoptotic cell remnants often causes autoimmune disorders, thus pharmacological potentiation of phagocytosis has a medical potential in treatment of certain forms of autoimmune disorders.

Engineered negligible senescence - Cell senescence—ApoptoSENS
Cell killing with suicide genes or vaccines is suggested for making the cells undertake apoptosis.

Suicide gene - Apoptosis

Suicide gene - Apoptosis
when apoptosis works overly well, it kills too many cells and inflicts grave tissue damage

The term is attributed to Klaus Conrad by Peter Brugger,Brugger, Peter
Apophenia The term is attributed to Klaus Conrad by Peter Brugger,Brugger, Peter

Apophenia - Meanings and forms
In short, apophenia is a misnomer that has taken on a bastardized meaning never intended by Conrad when he coined the neologism apophany.

In 2008, Michael Shermer coined the word patternicity, defining it as the tendency to find meaningful patterns in meaningless noise.

In 2011, psychologist David Luke proposed that apophenia is one end of a spectrum and that the opposite behaviour, the tendency to attribute chance probability to apparently patterned data, can be called randomania

Apophenia - Statistics
In statistics, apophenia is an example of a Type I error – the identification of false patterns in data. It may be compared with a so-called false positive in other test situations.

Apophenia - Pareidolia
Pareidolia is a type of apophenia involving the perception of images or sounds in random stimuli, for example, hearing a ringing phone while taking a shower. The noise produced by the running water gives a background from which the brain perceives there to be patterned sound of a ringing phone. A more common human experience is perceiving faces in inanimate objects: the headlights and grill of an automobile can appear to be grinning, individuals around the world can see the Man in the Moon.

Apophenia - Gambling Apophenia is heavily documented as a source of rationale behind gambling, with gamblers imagining they see patterns in the occurrence of numbers in lotteries, roulette wheels, and even cards. One variation of this is known as the Gambler's Fallacy.

Apophenia - Pareidolia
An example is the pareidolia associated with finding the faces of religious figures in pieces of toast, the grain of cut wood, or other such patterns. 21st century real-world examples include the finding of a cross inside a halved potato; the appearance of Jesus and Mary inside a halved orange; and the appearance of Jesus' face on a piece of toast, in the frost on a car window, and inside the lid of a jar of Marmite.

Apophenia - Fiction Postmodernity|Postmodern novelists and film-makers have reflected on apophenia-related phenomena, such as:

* Use of apophenia in text/plot
Apophenia - Fiction * Use of apophenia in text/plot

** Jorge Luis Borges's The Library of Babel
Apophenia - Fiction ** Jorge Luis Borges's The Library of Babel

Apophenia - Fiction ** Peter Watts (author)|Peter Watts's Blindsight (science fiction novel)|Blindsight

Apophenia - Fiction ** Alan Moore's Watchmen; From Hell (specifically Appendix II of From Hell titled Dance of the Gull Catchers)

** James Curcio's Join My Cult;
Apophenia - Fiction ** James Curcio's Join My Cult;

** The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson;
Apophenia - Fiction ** The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson;

** Denis Johnson's Resuscitation Of A Hanged Man;
Apophenia - Fiction ** Denis Johnson's Resuscitation Of A Hanged Man;

Apophenia - Fiction * The conspiracy-obsessed superhero The Question (comics)|The Question is accused of suffering from apophenia in the episode Double Date, of the animated TV series Justice League Unlimited.

Apophenia - Fiction * In the final issue of Batman R.I.P., the Joker (comics)|Joker explains to an organization trying to destroy Batman that there is no use trying because Batman is always so far ahead in figuring out every scheme against him. Joker attributes this to apophenia.

Apophenia - Fiction * Dark Side of the Rainbow – also known as 'ark Side of Oz or The Wizard of Floyd – refers to the pairing of the 1973 Pink Floyd album The Dark Side of the Moon with the visual portion of the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. This produces moments where the film and the album appear to correspond with each other. Band members and others involved in the making of the album state that any relationship between the two works of art is merely a coincidence.

Apophenia - Fiction * In episode 3x02 of Teen Wolf (2011 TV series)|Teen Wolf, Allison Argent|Allison and Lydia Martin|Lydia believe that the matching pair of bruises they have received may be a clue. Lydia suggests that it may be pareidolia, adding when the other characters look at her in confusion, Seeing patterns that aren't there. It's a subset of apophenia.

99942 Apophis During the short time when it had been most concerning, Apophis set the record for highest rating on the Torino Scale, reaching level4.

99942 Apophis On average, an asteroid the size of Apophis (325 meters) can be expected to impact Earth about every 80,000 years.

99942 Apophis - Physical characteristics
Based upon the observed brightness, Apophis's diameter was initially estimated at ; a more refined estimate based on spectroscopic observations at NASA's Infrared Telescope Facility in Hawaii by Binzel, Rivkin, Bus, and Tokunaga (2005) is . NASA's impact risk page lists the diameter at and lists a mass of 4 kg based on an assumed density of 2.6 g/cm. The mass estimate is more approximate than the diameter estimate, but should be accurate to within a factor of three.

99942 Apophis - Physical characteristics
During the 2029 approach, Apophis's brightness will peak at apparent magnitude|magnitude3.4, with a maximum angular speed of 42° per hour. The maximum apparent angular diameter will be ~2arcseconds, so that it will be barely optical resolution|resolved by ground-based telescopes not equipped with adaptive optics.

99942 Apophis - Discovery and naming
Apophis was discovered on June 19, 2004, by Roy A. Tucker, David J. Tholen and Fabrizio Bernardi at the Kitt Peak National Observatory. On December 21, 2004, Apophis passed from Earth. Precovery observations from March 15, 2004, were identified on December27, and an improved orbit was computed. Radar astronomy|Radar astrometry in January 2005 further refined the orbit.

Apep|Apophis is the Greek language|Greek name of an enemy of the Ancient Egyptian sun-god Ra: Apep, the Uncreator, an evil serpent that dwells in the eternal darkness of the Duat and tries to swallow Ra during his nightly passage

David J. Tholen and Tucker—two of the co-discoverers of the asteroid—are reportedly fans of the TV series Stargate SG-1. One of the show's persistent villains is an alien named Apophis (Stargate)|Apophis. In the fictional world of the show, the alien's backstory was that he had lived on Earth during ancient times and had posed as a god, thereby giving rise to the myth of the Egyptian god of the same name.

99942 Apophis - Close approaches
During the close approach in 2029 Earth will Perturbation (astronomy)|perturb Apophis from an Aten asteroid|Aten class orbit with a semi-major axis of 0.92Astronomical unit|AU to an Apollo asteroid|Apollo class orbit with a semi-major axis of 1.1AU.

With a cumulative Palermo Scale rating of −3.2, the risk of impact from Apophis is less than one thousandth the background hazard level.

On April 13, 2029, Apophis will pass Earth within the orbits of geosynchronous communication satellites, but will come no closer than 19,400 miles (31,300 kilometers) above Earth's surface. The 2029 pass will be much closer than had first been predicted. The pass in late March 2036 will be no closer than about — and will most likely miss Earth by something closer to .

99942 Apophis - 2005 and 2011 observations
On January 31, 2011, astronomers took the first new images of Apophis in more than 3 years.

99942 Apophis refinement Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo observed Apophis once it entered Arecibo's declination window after February 13, 2013.

99942 Apophis refinement A NASA assessment as of 21 February 2013 that does not use the 2013 radar measurements gives an impact probability of 2.3 out of a million for 2068.[ Apophis Risk Assessment Updated (February 21, 2013)] As of 6 May 2013, using observations through April 15, 2013, the odds of an impact on 12 April 2068 as calculated by the JPL Sentry risk table is 3.9 in a million (1 in 256,000).

99942 Apophis - History of impact estimates
*The original NASA report on December 23, 2004, mentioned impact chances of around 1 in 300 in 2029, which was widely reported in the media. The actual NASA estimates at the time were 1 in 233; these resulted in a Torino scale rating of 2, the first time any asteroid had received a rating above 1.

*Later that day, based on a total of 64 observations, the estimates were changed to 1 in 62 (1.6%), resulting in an update to the initial report and an upgrade to a Torino scale rating of 4.

*On December 27, 2004, in the afternoon, a precovery increased the span of observations to 287 days, which eliminated the 2029 impact threat. The cumulative impact probability was estimated to be around 0.004%, a risk lower than that of asteroid , which once again became the greatest-risk object. A 2053 approach to Earth still poses a minor risk of impact, and Apophis was still rated at level one on the Torino scale for this orbit.

*On December 28, 2004, at 12:23 GMT and (based on a total of 139 observations), produced a value of one on the Torino scale for and

*By 01:10 GMT on December 29, 2004, the only pass rated 1 on the Torino scale was for based on 139 observations spanning days (2004-Mar to 2004-Dec ). ( the 2053 risk is only 1 in (number)|billion.)

*By 19:18 GMT on December 29, 2004, this was still the case based upon 147 observations spanning days (2004-Mar to 2004-Dec ), though the close encounters have changed and been reduced to 4 in total.

*By 13:46 GMT on December 30, 2004, no passes were rated above 0, based upon 157observations spanning days (2004-Mar to 2004-Dec ). The most dangerous pass was rated at 1 in 7,143,000.

*By 03:57 GMT on January 2, 2005, 182 observations spanning days (2004-Mar to 2004-Dec ) One pass at 1 (Torino scale) 19 other passes.

*By 14:49 GMT on January 3, 2005, observations spanning days (2004-Mar to 2005-Jan ) One pass at 1 (Torino scale) 15 other passes.

*Extremely precise radar observations at Arecibo Observatory in January2005 refine the orbit further and show that the April 2029 close approach will occur at only 5.7Earth radii, approximately one-half the distance previously estimated.

*By February 6, 2005, Apophis () had a 1 in 13,000 chance of impacting in April 2036.

*Radar observation on August 7, 2005, refines the orbit further and eliminates the possibility of an impact in Only the pass in 2036 remains at Torino Scale1 (with a 1 in 5,560 chance of impact).

*In October 2005 it is predicted that the asteroid will pass just below the altitude of geosynchronous satellites, which are at . Such a close approach by an asteroid is estimated to occur every 800 years or so.[ Predicting Apophis' Earth Encounters in 2029 and 2036]

*Radar observation at Arecibo Observatory on May 6, 2006, slightly lowered the Palermo scale rating, but the pass in 2036 remained at Torino Scale1 despite the impact probability dropping by a factor of four.

*Additional observations through 2006 resulted in Apophis being lowered to Torino Scale0 by August5, (The impact probability was 1 in 45,000.)

*As of October 7, 2009, refinements to the precovery images of Apophis by the University of Hawaii's Institute for Astronomy, the 90-inch Bok Telescope, and the Arecibo Observatory have generated a refined path that reduces the odds of an April 13, 2036 impact to about 1 in 250,000.

Conversely, if Apophis is a small, less-massive prograde rotator, the uncertainty region is advanced along the orbit

Small uncertainties in the masses and positions of the planets and Sun can cause up to a 23 Earth radii of prediction error for Apophis by 2036.

*A statistical impact risk analysis of the data up to January 2013 calculated that the odds of the 2036 impact at 7.07 in a billion, effectively ruling it out. The same study looked at the odds of an impact in 2068, which were calculated at 2.27 in a million.[ Yarkovsky-driven impact risk analysis for asteroid (99942) Apophis]

Apophis will then come no closer than about 14 million miles — and more likely miss us by something closer to 35 million miles

99942 Apophis - Possible impact effects
The Sentry Risk Table estimates that Apophis would make atmospheric entry with 750TNT equivalent|megatons of kinetic energy

The exact effects of any impact would vary based on the asteroid's composition, and the location and angle of impact. Any impact would be extremely detrimental to an area of thousands of square kilometers, but would be unlikely to have long-lasting global effects, such as the initiation of an impact winter. Assuming Apophis is a 325-meter wide stony asteroid, if it were to impact into sedimentary rock, Apophis would create a impact crater.

Using the computer simulation tool NEOSim, it was estimated that the hypothetical impact of Apophis in countries such as Colombia and Venezuela, which were in the path of risk, could have more than 10 million casualties

99942 Apophis - Planetary Society competition
In 2007, The Planetary Society, a California-based space advocacy group, organized a $50,000 competition to design an unmanned space probe that would 'shadow' Apophis for almost a year, taking measurements that would determine whether it will impact Earth, thus helping governments decide whether to mount a deflection mission to alter its orbit. The society received 37entries from 20countries on 6continents.

It would then leave orbit and fly in formation with Apophis around the Sun at a range of twokilometers (1.2miles)

Pharos, the winning student entry, would be an orbiter with four science instruments (a multi-spectral imager, Near-infrared spectroscopy|near-infrared spectrometer, laser rangefinder, and magnetometer) that would rendezvous with and track Apophis

Second place, for $10,000, went to a European team led by Deimos Space S.L. of Madrid, Spain, in cooperation with EADS Astrium, Friedrichshafen, Germany; University of Stuttgart, Germany; and Università di Pisa, Italy. Juan L. Cano was principal investigator.

Another European team took home $5,000 for third place. Their team lead was EADS Astrium Ltd, United Kingdom, in conjunction with EADS Astrium SAS, France; IASF-Roma, INAF, Rome, Italy; Open University, UK; Rheinisches Institut für Umweltforschung, Germany; Royal Observatory of Belgium; and Telespazio, Italy. The principal investigator was Paolo D'Arrigo.

99942 Apophis - Don Quijote mission
Apophis is one of two asteroids under consideration by the European Space Agency as the target of its Don Quijote (space probe)|Don Quijote mission to study the effects of impacting an asteroid.[ ESA - NEO - Don Quijote concept]

99942 Apophis - Proposed deflection strategies
Studies by NASA, ESA, and various research groups in addition to the Planetary Society contest teams, have described a number of proposals for deflecting Apophis or similar objects, including gravitational tractor, Asteroid deflection strategies|kinetic impact, and nuclear bomb methods.

On December 30, 2009, Anatoly Perminov, the director of the Russian Federal Space Agency, said in an interview that Roscosmos will also study designs for a possible deflection mission to Apophis.

On August 16, 2011, researchers at China's Tsinghua University proposed launching a mission to knock Apophis onto a safer course using an impactor spacecraft in a retrograde orbit, steered and powered by a solar sail. Instead of moving the asteroid on its potential resonant return to Earth, Shengping Gong and his team believe the secret is shifting the asteroid away from entering the gravitational keyhole in the first place.

99942 Apophis - Popular culture
* In Id Software|id Software's Rage (video game)|Rage the asteroid Apophis collides with Earth, nearly wiping out humanity and ushering in a post-apocalypse|post-apocalyptic age.

99942 Apophis - Popular culture
* The Heavy metal music|metal band Type O Negative, based in New York, wrote a song about the asteroid called The Profit of Doom.

Apophallation 'Apophallation' is a technique resorted to by some species of air-breathing land slugs such as Limax maximus and Ariolimax. In these species of hermaphroditic Terrestrial animal|terrestrial gastropod mollusks, after mating, if the slugs cannot successfully separate, a deliberate amputation of the penis takes place.

Apophallation The slugs are hermaphroditic and have a full set of organs of both sexes. They have relatively large penises which, during mating, wrap around each other in a tight spiral. They sometimes have difficulty separating afterwards. When separating seems impossible, one slug gnaws off either its own, or its partner's penis, so that separation is then possible. No replacement penis grows, and the apophallated slug adopts a purely female function from that point onward.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase - Transcription and apoptosis
Zheng et al. discovered in 2003 that GAPDH can itself activate transcription (genetics)|transcription. The OCA-S transcriptional coactivator complex contains GAPDH and lactate dehydrogenase, two proteins previously only thought to be involved in metabolism. GAPDH moves between the cytosol and the Cell nucleus|nucleus and may thus link the metabolic state to gene transcription.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase - Transcription and apoptosis
In subsequent study the group demonstrated that deprenyl, which has been used clinically to treat Parkinson's disease, strongly reduces the apoptotic action of GAPDH by preventing its S-nitrosylation and might thus be used as a drug.

Population ecology - Metapopulation
Ecologists utilize a mixture of computer models and field studies to explain metapopulation structure.

Acetylation - N-terminal acetylation affects metabolism and apoptosis
This could activate caspase-2 and induce cell apoptosis.

Extinction debt - Origins in metapopulation models
Metapopulations are multiple populations of a species that live in separate Landscape_ecology#Patch_and_mosaic|habitat patches or islands but interact via immigration between the patches

Extinction debt - Origins in metapopulation models
One of the assumptions underlying the original extinction debt model was a trade-off between species' Competition (biology)|competitive ability and colonization ability

Programmed cell death - Apoptosis
It is also becoming clear that mitosis and apoptosis are toggled or linked in some way and that the balance achieved depends on signals received from appropriate growth or survival factors.

Proteolysis - Apoptosis
Caspases are an important group of proteases involved in apoptosis. The precursors of caspase, procaspase, may be activated by proteolysis through its association with a protein complex that forms apoptosome, or by granzyme B, or via the Tumor necrosis factor receptor|death receptor pathways.

Metapopulation A 'metapopulation' consists of a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which interact at some level. The term metapopulation was coined by Richard Levins in 1969 to describe a model of population dynamics of insect pests in agricultural fields, but the idea has been most broadly applied to species in naturally or artificially habitat fragmentation|fragmented habitats. In Levins' own words, it consists of a population of populations.

Metapopulation A metapopulation is generally considered to consist of several distinct populations together with areas of suitable habitat which are currently unoccupied. In classical metapopulation theory, each population cycles in relative independence of the other populations and eventually goes extinct as a consequence of demographic stochasticity (fluctuations in population size due to random demographic events); the smaller the population, the more prone it is to extinction.

Metapopulation Although individual populations have finite life-spans, the metapopulation as a whole is often stable because immigrants from one population (which may, for example, be experiencing a population boom) are likely to re-colonize habitat which has been left open by the extinction of another population

Metapopulation The development of metapopulation theory, in conjunction with the development of source-sink dynamics, emphasised the importance of connectivity between seemingly isolated populations. Although no single population may be able to guarantee the long-term survival of a given species, the combined effect of many populations may be able to do this.

Metapopulation Kritzer Sale have argued against strict application of the metapopulation definitional criteria that extinction risks to local populations must be non-negligible.

Metapopulation An important contributor to metapopulation theory is the Finland|Finnish biologist, Ilkka Hanski [ of the University of Helsinki.

Metapopulation - Predation and oscillations
The first experiments with predation and spatial heterogeneity were conducted by Georgii Gause|G.F

Metapopulation Dynamics of a Persisting Predator-Prey system.
Metapopulation - Huffaker's experiments on predator-prey interactions (1958) Metapopulation Dynamics of a Persisting Predator-Prey system.

Metapopulation - The Levins model
Levins' original model applied to a metapopulation distributed over many patches of suitable habitat with significantly less interaction between patches than within a patch. Population dynamics within a patch were simplified to the point where only presence and absence were considered. Each patch in his model is either populated or not.

Let N be the fraction of patches occupied at a given time. During a time dt, each occupied patch can become unoccupied with an extinction probability edt. Additionally, 1−N of the patches are unoccupied. Assuming a constant rate c of propagule generation from each of the N occupied patches, during a time dt, each unoccupied patch can become occupied with a colonization probability cNdt . Accordingly, the time rate of change of occupied patches, dN/dt, is

This equation is mathematically equivalent to the logistic model, with a carrying capacity K given by

At equilibrium, therefore, some fraction of the species's habitat will always be unoccupied.

Metapopulation - Stochasticity and metapopulations
Huffaker's studies of spatial structure and species interactions are an example of early experimentation in metapopulation dynamics

Metapopulation - Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs)
Metapopulations are particularly useful when discussing species in disturbed habitats, and the minimum viable population|viability of their populations, i.e., how likely they are to become extinct in a given time interval

Metapopulation - Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs)
For conservation biology purposes, metapopulation models must include (a) the finite nature of metapopulations (how many patches are suitable for habitat), and (b) the probability theory|probabilistic nature of extinction and colonisation. Also, note that in order to apply these models, the extinctions and colonisations of the patches must be asynchronous.

Metapopulation - Microhabitat patches (MHPs) and bacterial metapopulations
The metapopulation biology and evolutionary ecology of these bacterial systems, in these synthetic ecosystems, can be addressed using experimental biophysics.

Metapopulation - Life history evolution
The duration of the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches to terrestrial patches.

Rapoport's rule 'Rapoport’s rule' is an ecology|ecological hypothesis that states that latitude|latitudinal ranges of plants and animals are generally smaller at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes.

Rapoport's rule - Background
Extending Rapoport’s rule to Pacific marine fishes

Rapoport's rule - Generality of the rule
Simulation of Rapoport’s rule for latitudinal species spread

Rapoport's rule - Explanations of the rule
Rapoport effect and biomic specialization in African mammals: revisiting the climatic variability hypothesis

Rapoport's rule - Methods used to demonstrate the rule
Nonbiological gradients in species richness and a spurious Rapoport effect

Rapoport's rule - Biotic and abiotic factors which act against the rule
Marine benthic invertebrates and some parasites have been shown to have smaller dispersal abilities in cold seas (Thorson's rule), which would counteract Rapoport’s rule. The tropics have far more uniform temperatures over a far wider latitudinal range (about 45 degrees) than high latitude species. As temperature is one of the most important (if not the most important) factor determining geographical distribution, wider latitudinal ranges in the tropics might therefore be expected.

Rapoport's rule - Evolutionary age and Rapoport’s rule
The inconsistent results concerning Rapoport’s rule suggest that certain characteristics of species may be responsible for their different latitudinal ranges

Apophatic theology 'Apophatic theology' (from , from ἀπόφημι – apophēmi, to deny)—also known as 'negative theology', via negativa or via negationis (Latin for negative way or by way of denial)—is a theology that attempts to Problem of religious language|describe God, the Divine Good, by negation, to speak only in terms of what may not be said about the perfect goodness that is God. It stands in contrast with cataphatic theology.

Apophatic theology A startling example can be found with theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena|John Scotus Erigena (9th century): We do not know what God is. God Himself does not know what He is because He is not anything. Literally God is not, because He transcends being.

Apophatic theology The apophatic tradition is often, though not always, allied with the approach of mysticism, which focuses on a spontaneous or cultivated individual experience of the divine reality beyond the realm of perception|ordinary perception, an experience often unmediated by the structures of traditional organized religion or the conditioned role-playing and learned defensive behavior of the outer man.

Apophatic theology - Apophatic description of God
In negative theology, it is accepted that experience of the Divine is ineffable, an experience of the holy that can only be recognized or remembered abstractly

* Neither existence nor nothing|nonexistence as we understand it in the physical realm, applies to God; i.e., the Divine is abstract to the individual, beyond existing or not existing, and beyond conceptualization regarding the whole (one cannot say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; nor can we say that God is nonexistent).

* God is divine simplicity|divinely simple (one should not claim that God is one, or three, or any type of being.)

* God is not ignorant (one should not say that God is wise since that word Pride|arrogantly implies we know what wisdom means on a divine scale, whereas we only know what wisdom is believed to mean in a confined cultural context).

* Likewise, God is not evil (to say that God can be described by the word 'good' limits God to what good behavior means to human beings individually and en masse).

* God is not a creation myth|creation (but beyond that we cannot define how God exists or operates in relation to the whole of humanity).

* God is not conceptually defined in terms of space and location (geography)|location.

* God is not conceptually confined to assumptions based on time.

It should be noted however that since religious experience—or consciousness of the holy or sacred, is not reducible to other kinds of human experience, an abstract understanding of religious experience cannot be used as evidence or proof that religious discourse or praxis can have no meaning or value.Bernard Lonergan|Lonergan, Bernard (1972), Method in Theology, New York, N.Y.: Seabury Press, ISBN In apophatic theology, the negation of theisms in the via negativa also requires the negation of their correlative atheisms if the dialectical method it employs is to maintain integrity.Michael J

Apophatic theology - In Buddhism
Buddhism deals with questions which may or may not be described as theological. Nevertheless, an apophatic approach is evident in much of Buddhist philosophy.

According to early Buddhist scripture, the Buddha refused to answer certain questions regarding metaphysical propositions, known as the fourteen unanswerable questions (the Pali Canon gives only ten)

In his book The Silence of God: the Answer of the Buddha, Raimundo Panikkar analyzes the fourteen unanswerable questions in the context of Buddhist-Christian dialogue, and comes to the conclusion that the Buddha's position can best be described as transcendental apophaticism, i.e., a position in which the transcendent (in this case, nirvana), is defined through negation.

Apophatic theology - In the Christian tradition
Both Judaism and Christianity are revelation-based models. God has certain attributes positively ascribed to Himself. The text is said to be Biblical inspiration|inspired. Another way to say this is God represents Himself through the text. For example: Christianity teaches that the Logos#.22God.22 or .22a god.22|Logos (the Second Person of the Trinity) became incarnation (Christianity)|incarnate. This type of reasoning is known as cataphatic theology.

Examples of apophatic theology are: God's appearance to Moses in the Burning Bush, and the ineffable Tetragrammaton|Name of God (). Also the theophany to Elijah, where God reveals Himself in a still, small voice (). And Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul's reference to the Unknown God in the Acts of the Apostles () is sometimes pointed to as an apophatic statement.

Tertullian says, “That which is infinite is known only to itself. This it is which gives some notion of God, while yet beyond all our conceptions—our very incapacity of fully grasping Him affords us the idea of what He really is. He is presented to our minds in His transcendent greatness, as at once known and unknown.”Tertullian, Apologeticus, § 17

Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, in his catechesis|Catechetical Homily|Homilies says: For we explain not what God is but candidly confess that we have not exact knowledge concerning Him. For in what concerns God to confess our ignorance is the best knowledge.

The Cappadocian Fathers of the 4th century said that they believed in God, but they did not believe that God exists in the same sense that everything else exists. That is to say, everything else that exists was created, but the Creator transcendence (religion)|transcends even existence. The essence of God is completely unknowable; mankind can know God only through His Energies of God|energies.

Apophatic theology found its most influential expression in works such as those of Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor (Pseudo-Dionysius is quoted by Thomas Aquinas 1,760 times in his Summa Theologica).

36–40, ISBN In Eastern Christianity, God is Immanence|immanent in his hypostasis (philosophy)|hypostasis or existences.Aristotle Papanikolaou|Papanikolaou, Aristotle (2006), Being With God: Trinity, Apophaticism, and Divine–Human Communion (1st Edition), Notre Dame, Indiana:University of Notre Dame Press, p

Apophatic statements are crucial to many modern theologians in Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity (see Vladimir Lossky, John Meyendorff, John S

In Orthodox theology, apophatic theology is taught as superior to cataphatic theology

John of the Cross (San Juan de la Cruz), mentioned above, exemplify some aspects of or tendencies towards the apophatic tradition in the West

C. S. Lewis, in his book Miracles (book)|Miracles, advocates the use of negative theology when first thinking about God, in order to cleanse our minds of misconceptions. He goes on to say we must then refill our minds with the truth about God, untainted by mythology, bad analogies or false mind-pictures.

The mid-20th century Dutch philosopher, Herman Dooyeweerd, who is often associated with a neo-Calvinistic tradition, provides a philosophical foundation for understanding why we can never absolutely know God, and yet, paradoxically, truly know something of God

Karen Armstrong, in her book The Case for God (2009), notices a recovery of apophatic theology in postmodern theology.LA Times: Jack Miles. [ Faith and Belief: 'The Evolution of God' by Robert Wright and 'The Case for God' by Karen Armstrong]

Ivan Illich, the historian and social critic, can be read as an apophatic theologian, according to a longtime collaborator, Lee Hoinacki, in a paper presented in memory of Illich, called Why Philia?[ Hoinacki, Lee]

While negative theology is used in Christianity as a means of dispelling misconceptions about God, and of approaching Him beyond the limits of human reasoning, most commonly Christian doctrine is taken to involve positive claims: that God exists and has certain positive attributes, even if those attributes are only partially comprehensible to us.

Apophatic theology - In Greek philosophy
The ancient Greek poet Hesiod has in his account of the birth of the gods and creation of the world (i.e., in his Theogony) that Chaos (mythology)|Chaos begot the Greek primordial deities|primordial deities: Eros (mythology)|Eros, Gaia (mythology)|Gaia (Earth) and Tartarus, who begot Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (mythology)|Nyx (Night), and Plato echoes this genealogy in the Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus [ 40e, 41e] where the familiar Titan and Olympian gods are sired by Heaven and Earth

Apophatic theology - In Greek philosophy
Plotinus was the first to propose negative theology

Apophatic theology - In Hinduism
Apophatic movements in Hinduism are visible in the works of Adi Shankara|Shankara, a philosopher of Advaita Vedanta school of Indian philosophy, and Bhartṛhari, a grammarian

Further use of apophatic theology is found in the Brahma Sutras, which state:

In Advaita, Brahman is defined as being Nirguna or without qualities

Negative theology also figures in the Buddhist and Hindu polemics. The arguments go something like this – Is Brahman an object of experience? If so, how do you convey this experience to others who have not had a similar experience? The only way possible is to relate this unique experience to common experiences while explicitly negating their sameness.

Apophatic theology - In other Eastern traditions
Many other East Asian traditions present something very similar to the apophatic approach: for example, the Tao Te Ching, the source book of the Chinese Taoist tradition, asserts in its first statement: the Tao (way or truth) that can be described is not the constant/true Tao.

Apophatic theology - In Islam
The Arabic term for negative theology is lahoot salbi, which is a system of theology or nizaam al lahoot in Arabic

Apophatic theology - In Islam
Shia Islam is another sect that adopted negative theology. Most Salafi/Athari adherents reject this methodology because they believe that the Attributes of God, as depicted in Islamic scriptures is to be literal. But most Sunnis, who are Ash'ari and Maturidi by Kalam use ta'til to some extent, if not completely. The Sufis greatly depend on the use of ta'til in their spirituality, though they often also use Cataphatic theology.

Apophatic theology - In the Jewish tradition
In Jewish philosophy|Jewish belief, God is defined as the Creationism|Creator of the universe: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth (Book of Genesis|Genesis 1:1); similarly, I am God, I make all things (Isaiah 44:24)

Bahya ibn Paquda shows that our inability to describe God is similarly related to the fact of His Jewish principles of faith#God is One|absolute unity. God, as the entity which is truly One (האחד האמת), must be free of properties and is thus unlike anything else and indescribable; see Divine simplicity. This idea is developed fully in later Jewish philosophy, especially in the thought of the medieval rationalists such as Maimonides and Samuel ibn Tibbon.

It is understood that although we cannot describe God directly (מצד עצמו) it is possible to describe Him indirectly via His attributes (תארים)

In line with this formulation, attributes commonly used in describing God in rabbinic literature, in fact refer to the negative attributes mdash; omniscience, for example, refers to non-ignorance; omnipotence to non-impotence; unity to non-plurality, eternity to non-temporality

Since two approaches are used to speak of God, there are times when these may conflict, giving rise to paradoxes in Jewish philosophy

Ceramide - Apoptosis However, owing to the conflicting and variable nature of studies into the role of ceramide in apoptosis, the mechanism by which this lipid regulates apoptosis remains elusive.

Proteasome - Apoptosis
During apoptosis, proteasomes localized to the nucleus have also been observed to translocate to outer membrane blebbing|blebs characteristic of apoptosis.

Proteasome - Apoptosis
The ability of proteasome inhibitors to induce apoptosis in rapidly dividing cells has been exploited in several recently developed chemotherapy agents such as bortezomib and .

Scramblase - Apoptosis
This activated t-Bid induces activation of Bcl-2-associated X protein|Bax and BAK1|Bak proteins to form cytochrome c channels that facilitate the release of cytochrome c during apoptosis.

Scramblase - Apoptosis
Phosphotidyl serine is translocated to the exoplasmic leaflet by the activation of scramblases, leading to pro-coagulant properties and providing a phagocytic signal to the macrophages that engulf and clear the apoptotic cells

Sphingomyelin - Apoptosis
In the early 2000s new studies emerged that defined a new role for sphingomyelin hydrolysis in apoptosis, determining not only when a cell dies but how

Apoptosis-inducing factor
'Apoptosis inducing factor' is a flavoprotein.

Apoptosis-inducing factor
Inactivation of AIF leads to resistance of embryonic stem cells to death following the withdrawal of growth factors indicating that it is involved in apoptosis.

Apoptosis-inducing factor - Function
Recently, researchers have discovered that AIF is in fact dependent upon the type of cell, the apoptotic insult, and its DNA binding ability

Apoptosis-inducing factor - Synthesis
The x-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) has the power to influence the half-life of AIF along with Scythe

Apoptosis-inducing factor - Role in mitochondria
It was thought that if a recombinant version of AIF lacked the first N-terminal 120 amino acids of the protein, then AIF would function as an NADH and NADPH oxidase. However, it was instead discovered that recombinant AIF that do not have the last 100 N-terminal amino acids have limited NADP and NADPH oxidase activity. Therefore, researchers concluded that the AIF N-terminus may function in interactions with other proteins or control AIF redox reactions and substrate specificity.

Apoptosis-inducing factor - Role in mitochondria
Mutations of AIF due to deletions have stimulated the creation of the mouse model of complex I deficiency

Apoptosis-inducing factor - Isozymes
Human genes encoding apoptosis inducing factor isozymes include:

Cell damage - Apoptosis
Hyperactive apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage.

Cytochrome c - Role in apoptosis
Cytochrome c is also an intermediate in apoptosis, a controlled form of cell death used to kill cells in the process of development or in response to infection or DNA damage.

Cytochrome c binds to cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane, thus anchoring its presence and keeping it from releasing out of the mitochondria and initiating apoptosis. While the initial attraction between cardiolipin and cytochrome c is electrostatic due to the extreme positive charge on cytochrome c, the final interaction is hydrophobic, where a hydrophobic tail from cardiolipin inserts itself into the hydrophobic portion of cytochrome c.

During the early phase of apoptosis, mitochondrial ROS production is stimulated, and cardiolipin is oxidized by a peroxidase function of the cardiolipin–cytochrome c complex. The hemoprotein is then detached from the mitochondrial inner membrane and can be extruded into the soluble cytoplasm through pores in the outer membrane.

The sustained elevation in calcium levels precedes cyt c release from the mitochondria

Theoria - Dionysius the Areopagite's apophaticism
Theoria is the main theme of Dionysius’ work called The Mystical Theology

Theoria - Dionysius the Areopagite's apophaticism
While theoria is possible through prayer, it is attained in a perfect way through the Eucharist

Natural killer cell - Cytolytic granule mediated cell apoptosis
The distinction between apoptosis and cell lysis is important in immunology: lysing a virus-infected cell could potentially only release the virions, whereas apoptosis leads to destruction of the virus inside

Ecological theory - Metapopulations
Spatial analysis of ecological systems often reveals that assumptions that are valid for spatially homogenous populations – and indeed, intuitive – may no longer be valid when migratory subpopulations moving from one patch to another are considered.Ilkka Hanski|Hanski I (1999) [ Metapopulation ecology] Oxford University Press

where m is the rate of Colonisation (biology)|colonization, and e is the rate of extinction

In this case, if e is too high, p1 and p2 will be zero at steady state. However, when the rate of extinction is moderate, p1 and p2 can stably coexist. The steady state value of p2 is given by

It is interesting to note that if e is zero, the dynamics of the system favor the species that is better at colonizing (i.e

The form of the differential equations used in this simplistic modelling approach can be modified. For example:

# Colonization may be dependent on p linearly (m*(1-p)) as opposed to the non-linear m*p*(1-p) regime described above

# Extinction may depend non-linearly on p (e*p*(1-p)) as opposed to the linear (e*p) regime described above. This is referred to as the “rescue effect” and it is again harder to drive a population extinct under this regime.

The model can also be extended to combinations of the four possible linear or non-linear dependencies of colonization and extinction on p are described in more detail in.

Pituitary apoplexy 'Pituitary apoplexy' or 'pituitary tumor apoplexy' is hemorrhage|bleeding into or infarction|impaired blood supply of the pituitary gland at the base of the brain

Pituitary apoplexy The diagnosis is achieved with magnetic resonance imaging and blood tests. Treatment is by the timely correction of hormone deficiencies, and in many cases Hypophysectomy|surgical decompression is required. Many people who have had a pituitary apoplexy develop hypopituitarism|pituitary hormone deficiencies and require long-term hormone supplementation. The first case of the disease was recorded in 1898.

Pituitary apoplexy - Acute symptoms
The initial symptoms of pituitary apoplexy are related to the increased pressure in and around the pituitary gland

Pressure on the part of the optic nerve known as the Optic chiasm|chiasm, which is located above the gland, leads to loss of vision on the Bitemporal hemianopsia|outer side of the visual field on both sides, as this corresponds to areas on the retinas supplied by these parts of the optic nerve; it is encountered in 75% of cases

70% of people with pituitary apoplexy experience double vision due to compression of one of the nerves

Pituitary apoplexy - Endocrine dysfunction
This occurs in 70% of those with pituitary apoplexy

Pituitary apoplexy - Endocrine dysfunction
Hyponatremia, an unusually low level of sodium in the blood that may cause mental confusion|confusion and Epileptic seizure|seizures, is found in 40% of cases

Pituitary apoplexy - Causes
In an analysis of incidentally found pituitary tumors, apoplexy occurred in 0.2% annually, but the risk was higher in tumors larger than 10mm (macroadenomas) and tumors that were growing more rapidly; in a meta-analysis, not all these associations achieved statistical significance.

Treatment of prolactinomas (pituitary adenomas that secrete prolactin) with dopamine agonist drugs, as well as withdrawal of such treatment, has been reported to precipitate apoplexy.

Others regard Sheehan's syndrome as a form of pituitary apoplexy.

Pituitary apoplexy - Mechanism
Larger tumors are more prone to bleeding, and more rapidly growing lesions (as evidenced by detection of increased levels of the protein Proliferating cell nuclear antigen|PCNA) may also be at a higher risk of apoplexy.

Pituitary apoplexy - Mechanism
After an apoplexy, the pressure inside the sella turcica rises, and surrounding structures such as the optic nerve and the contents of the cavernous sinus are compressed. The raised pressure further impairs the blood supply to the pituitary hormone-producing tissue, leading to necrosis|tissue death due to insufficient blood supply.

Pituitary apoplexy - Diagnosis
Many pituitary tumors (25%) are found to have areas of hemorrhagic infarction on MRI scans, but apoplexy is not said to exist unless it is accompanied by symptoms.

In pituitary apoplexy the results are typically normal, although abnormalities may be detected if blood from the pituitary has entered the subarachnoid space

Professional guidelines recommend that if pituitary apoplexy is suspected or confirmed, the minimal blood tests performed should include a complete blood count, urea (a measure of renal function, usually performed together with creatinine), electrolytes (sodium and potassium), liver function tests, routine coagulation testing, and a hormonal panel including Insulin-like growth factor 1|IGF-1, growth hormone, prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, thyroxine|thyroid hormone, and either testosterone in men or estradiol in women.

Visual field testing is recommended as soon as possible after diagnosis, as it quantifies the severity of any optic nerve involvement, and may be required to decide on surgical treatment.

Pituitary apoplexy - Treatment
The first priority in suspected or confirmed pituitary apoplexy is stabilization of the circulatory system. Cortisol deficiency can cause severe hypotension|low blood pressure. Depending on the severity of the illness, admission to a Intensive-care medicine|high dependency unit (HDU) may be required.

Treatment for acute adrenal insufficiency requires the administration of Intravenous therapy|intravenous Saline (medicine)|saline or glucose|dextrose solution; volumes of over two liters may be required in an adult

The decision on whether to Hypophysectomy|surgically decompress the pituitary gland is complex and mainly dependent on the severity of visual loss and visual field defects

Those with relatively mild visual field loss or double vision only may be managed conservatively, with close observation of the level of consciousness, visual fields, and results of routine blood tests. If there is any deterioration, or expected spontaneous improvement does not occur, surgical intervention may still be indicated. If the apoplexy occurred in a prolactin-secreting tumor, this may respond to dopamine agonist treatment.

After recovery, people who have had pituitary apoplexy require follow-up by an endocrinology|endocrinologist to monitor for long-term consequences. MRI scans are performed 3–6months after the initial episode and subsequently on an annual basis. If after surgery some tumor tissue remains, this may respond to medication, further surgery, or radiation therapy with a Radiosurgery|gamma knife.

Pituitary apoplexy - Prognosis
In larger case series, the mortality was 1.6% overall. In the group of patients who were unwell enough to require surgery, the mortality was 1.9%, with no deaths in those who could be treated conservatively.

Pituitary apoplexy - Prognosis
After an episode of pituitary apoplexy, 80% of people develop hypopituitarism and require some form of Hormone therapy|hormone replacement therapy

Pituitary apoplexy - Epidemiology
Pituitary apoplexy is rare. Even in people with a known pituitary tumor, only 0.6–10% experience apoplexy; the risk is higher in larger tumors. Based on extrapolations from existing data, one would expect 18 cases of pituitary apoplexy per one million people every year; the actual figure is probably lower.

Pituitary apoplexy - Epidemiology
The average age at onset is 50; cases have reported in people between 15 and 90 years old. Men are affected more commonly than women, with a male-to-female ratio of 1.6. The majority of the underlying tumors are null cell or nonsecretory tumors, which do not produce excessive amounts of hormones; this might explain why the tumor has often gone undetected prior to an episode of apoplexy.

Pituitary apoplexy - History
The first case description of pituitary apoplexy has been attributed to the American neurologist Pearce Bailey (neurologist)|Pearce Bailey in This was followed in 1905 by a further report from the German physician Bleibtreu. Surgery for pituitary apoplexy was described in Before the introduction of steroid replacement, the mortality from pituitary apoplexy approximated 50%.

Pituitary apoplexy - History
The name of the condition was coined in 1950 in a case series by physicians from Boston City Hospital and Harvard Medical School. The term apoplexy was applied as it referred to both necrosis and bleeding into pituitary tumors.

Neurodegenerative disorders - Apoptosis (type I)
*'Intrinsic apoptotic pathways:' Result from mitochondrial release of cytochrome c or endoplasmic reticulum malfunctions, each leading to the activation of caspase-9. The cell nucleus|nucleus and Golgi apparatus are other organelles that have damage sensors, which can lead the cells down apoptotic pathways.

Myristoylation - Apoptosis
Actin, gelsolin and p21-activated kinase 2 PAK2 are three other proteins that are myristoylated following cleavage by caspase 3, which leads to either the up-regulation or down-regulation of apoptosis.

'Apepi - King's son Apophis
These two attributes are normally reserved to kings or designated heirs to the throne and 'Apepi could be the Apophis referred to on the seals

Thorson's rule - Implications for Rapoport's rule
Rapoport's rule states that latitudinal ranges of species are generally smaller at low than at high latitudes. Thorson's rule contradicts this rule, because species disperse more widely at low than at high latitudes, supplementing much evidence against the generality of Rapoport's rule and for the fact that tropical species often have wider geographical ranges than high latitude species.

Rohde, K., Heap M. and Heap, D Rapoport's rule does not apply to marine teleosts and cannot explain latitudinal gradients in species richness. American Naturalist 142: 1-16.

Rohde, K Latitudinal gradients in species diversity and Rapoport's rule revisited: a review of recent work, and what can parasites teach us about the causes of the gradients? Ecography 22: Also published In Ecology and tomorrow (Ed T Fenchel), pp (Ecology Institute: University of Lund, Sweden).

Phagocyte - Role in apoptosis
In an animal, cells are constantly dying. A balance between cell division and cell death keeps the number of cells relatively constant in adults. There are two different ways a cell can die: by necrosis or by apoptosis. In contrast to necrosis, which often results from disease or trauma, apoptosis—or programmed cell death—is a normal healthy function of cells. The body has to rid itself of millions of dead or dying cells every day, and phagocytes play a crucial role in this process.

Phagocyte - Role in apoptosis
(Free registration required for online access) Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytoplasm|cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a hypothetical protein known as scramblase

Unfolded protein response - Initiating apoptosis
However, the point at which the ‘apoptotic switch’ is activated has not yet been determined, but it is a logical consideration that this should be beyond a certain time period in which resolution of the stress has not been achieved

By binding with the protein TRAF2, Ire1 activates a JNK signaling pathway14, at which point human procaspase 4 is believed to cause apoptosis by activating downstream caspases.

CHOP causes downregulation of the anti-apoptotic mitochondrial protein Bcl-216, favouring a pro-apoptotic drive at the mitochondria by proteins that cause mitochondrial damage, cytochrome c release and caspase 3 activation.

Viral shedding - Via apoptosis
Rather, apoptosis is usually controlled and results in the cell's genome being chopped up, before Bleb (cell biology)|apoptotic bodies of dead cell material clump off the cell to be absorbed by macrophages

Viral shedding - Via apoptosis
Although this process is primarily used by non-enveloped viruses, enveloped viruses may also use this. HIV is an example of an enveloped virus that exhibits this process for the infection of macrophages.Sheila A. Stewart, Betty Poon, Joo Y. Song, and Irvin S. Y. Chen. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Vpr Induces Apoptosis through Caspase Activation. Journal of Virology, April 2000, p , Vol. 74, No. 7

Jessica Sutta - 2010–present: Solo career development SuttaPop
On September 19, 2010, she released her first solo single, I Wanna Be Bad (Jessica Sutta song)|I Wanna Be Bad, which she wrote and produced with Tearce Keaz

On March 3, 2011, she revealed a collaboration with DJ Erick Morillo on a track titled Pin-up Girl. The song was written by Vassy (singer)|VASSY Jamie Hartman, and produced by Morillo, Harry Romero and José Nunez. It also features American rapper Stone Wallace. On March 27, 2011, she performed the track alongside Wallace and Morillo at Ultra Music Festival.

Cedric Gervai's, Where Ever U Are. which features Sutta was released on August 2, 2011 and appears on Gervais' album Miamication. On June 3, 2011, she announced on Twitter that she had signed to Hollywood Records, home to several Disney artists. Jessica's official first single Show Me (Jessica Sutta song)|Show Me appears as a bonus track on Now That's What I Call Music! 39 (U.S. series)|Now That's What I Call Music! Vol. 39, which was released on August 9, 2011.

Show Me premiered on Idolator on August 3, The video premiered on Saturday, August 6 on ABC Family. Following that, the song became available digitally on August 23. The song peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs in the United States, becoming Sutta's first number-one single as a solo artist. She is currently working on her debut solo album, Sutta Pop, which currently does not have a release date.

In 2012, she performed at various corporate and other performance venues, achieving critical acclaim for her performance at Chicago's Halsted Market Days

Zygapophysial joint A 'zygapophysial joint' ('zygapophyseal', 'apophyseal', 'Z-joint', or 'facet joint') is a synovial joint between the superior articular processes|articular process, in humans (cranial in nonhuman animals) of one vertebra and the inferior (caudal) articular process of the vertebra directly above it. There are two facet joints in each functional spinal unit|spinal motion segment.

Zygapophysial joint Zygapophyseal joints appear to have little influence on the range of side bending (lateral flexion)

Zygapophysial joint In the thoracic spine the zygapophysial joints function to restrain the amount of flexion and anterior translation of the corresponding vertebral segment and function to facilitate rotation.

Zygapophysial joint - Facet joint arthritis
In large part due to the mechanical nature of their function, all joints undergo degenerative changes with the wear and tear of age. This is particularly true for joints in the spine, and the zygapophysial joint in particular. This is commonly known as facet syndrome|facet joint arthritis or facet arthropathy.

Zygapophysial joint - Diagnosis
Facet joint arthritis often manifests as a dull ache across the back. However like many deep organs of the body it can be experienced by the patient in a variety of Referred pain|referral pain patterns.

Zygapophysial joint - Diagnosis
The location of facet joints, deep in the back and covered with large tracts of Erector spinae muscles|paraspinal muscles, further complicate the diagnostic approach. Typically facet joint arthritis is diagnosed with specialized physical examination by specialist physicians. Advanced imaging such as MRI or X-ray computed tomography|CT may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis and to rule out other conditions.

Zygapophysial joint - Treatment
Conservative treatment of facet joint arthritis involves chiropractic, physical therapy, or osteopathic medicine with correction of Neutral spine|posture and biomechanics being the key

Zygapophysial joint - Etymology
Ancient Greek: zygon (yoke) + apo (out/from) + phyein (grow)

The Hallmarks of Cancer - Evading apoptosis
:Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death (cell suicide), the mechanism by which cells are programmed to die in the event they become damaged. Cancer cells characteristically are able to bypass this mechanism.

Apoptosis can be triggered by an overexpressed oncogene, and this may be the primary means by which such mutant cells are continually removed. Conversely, cancer cells must overcome apoptosis to progress.

The apoptotic machinery can be divided into sensors, which monitor the cell for abnormal behavior, and effectors, which cause apoptosis.

The sensors include survival signals and their receptors, which monitor the cell for DNA damage, oncogene overexpression, and low oxygen (hypoxia). They monitor survival signals from the cell matrix and neighboring cells.

Sensors include IGF-1/IGF2 and their receptor IGF-1R; and IL-3 and its receptor.

The effectors include FAS ligand and its receptor, and TNF-α and its receptor.

CARD domain - CARD domains in apoptosis
CARD domains were originally characterized based on their involvement in the regulation of caspase activation and apoptosis. The basic six-helix structure of the domain appears to be conserved as far back as the ced-3 and ced-4 genes in C. elegans, the organism in which several components of the apoptotic machinery were first characterized. CARD motifs are present on a number of proteins that promote apoptosis, primarily caspases 1,2,4,5,9, and 15 in mammals.

Ovarian apoplexy 'Ovarian apoplexy' is a sudden rupture in the ovary, commonly at the site of a Ovarian cyst|cyst, accompanied by hemorrhage in the ovarian tissue and/or intraperitoneal bleeding.

Ovarian apoplexy - Pathogenesis
In the ovaries of sexually mature women, follicles grow, and oocyte matures in them, to prepare for potential fertilization

Ovarian apoplexy - Pathogenesis
In cases of dystrophic and sclerotic changes in ovarian tissue, acute and chronic inflammatory processes in the uterus, or in polycystic ovary syndrome and some other diseases, as well as the result of medication that stimulate ovulation, certain irregularities in ovulation process and corpus luteum formation occur

Ovarian apoplexy - Symptoms
# Pain, which occurs primarily mid-cycle or after a minor delay in menstruation (at the time of the rupture of a corpus luteum cyst, for example). Pain is most often localized in the lower abdomen. Sometimes the pain may radiate to the rectum or to the lumbar or the umbilical region.

:* weakness and dizziness

Sometimes there may be inter-menstrual bleeding or spotting after menstruation.

Quite often, ovarian apoplexy occurs after intercourse or training in the gym, when pressure in the abdomen has increased or ovarian tissue has experienced some stress. However, rupture of ovarian tissue can occur in conjunction with other diseases.

Ovarian apoplexy - Classification
# Painful type - the primary symptom is pain, without signs of intraperitoneal bleeding.

# Anemic type - the primary symptom is internal (abdominal) bleeding, without pain.

However, according to recent data, this classification is inadequate, because the ovary cannot rupture without bleeding.

Therefore, a new pathology has been devised in which the condition is divided according to severity: mild, moderate and severe (depending on the magnitude of blood loss).

Ovarian apoplexy - Diagnosis
Typical complaints appear during the middle or second half of the menstrual cycle.

On examination, there is marked soreness of the affected ovary, and positive symptoms of irritation of the peritoneum.

Pelvic ultrasound reveals in the affected ovary a large corpus luteum cyst with signs of hemorrhage in it and/or free fluid (blood) in the stomach.

Because ovarian apoplexy is an acute surgical pathology, diagnosis must be confirmed rapidly, since delays between the event and surgical intervention increases the magnitude of blood loss and may be life-threatening.[ EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICE IN GYNECOLOGY]

Ovarian apoplexy - Treatment
In the presence or suspected internal bleeding, surgery is indicated via laparoscopy or laparotomy.Short-term and long-term results of ovarian apoplexy treatment; L

Ovarian apoplexy - Treatment
After being discharged from the hospital, it is important to take steps to prevent a recurrence in the future. Such steps include avoiding risk factors or beginning a regimen of oral contraceptives to control ovarian activity.

Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody - Theory of defective apoptosis
ANCA may be developed either via ineffective apoptosis or ineffective removal of apoptotic cell fragments, leading to the exposure of the immune system to molecules normally sequestered inside the cells

Transforming growth factor beta - Apoptosis
TGF-β induces apoptosis in numerous cell types. TGF-β can induce apoptosis in two ways: through the SMAD (protein)|SMAD pathway or the Death associated protein 6|DAXX pathway.

Apoplexy 'Apoplexy' () is bleeding within internal organ (anatomy)|organs and the accompanying symptoms. For example, ovarian apoplexy is bleeding in the ovaries. The term formerly referred to what is now called a stroke;[ Apoplexy] at WebMD|MedicineNet.com. nowadays, health care professionals typically specify the type of apoplexy, such as ovarian and pituitary apoplexy.

Apoplexy Informally, apoplexy is associated with being furious, especially as 'apoplectic'.[ Collins World English Dictionary: apoplexy]

Apoplexy - Historical meaning
Ruptured aortic aneurysms, and even myocardial infarction|heart attacks and strokes were referred to as apoplexy in the past, because before the advent of medical science there was little ability to differentiate pathoses (because there was very little accurate understanding of physiology in general).

Apoplexy - Hemorrhage Because the term by itself is now ambiguous, it is often coupled with a descriptive adjective to indicate the site of bleeding. For example, bleeding within the pituitary gland is called pituitary apoplexy, and bleeding within the adrenal glands can be called adrenal apoplexy.

Apoplexy - Hemorrhage Apoplexy also includes hemorrhaging with the gland and accompanying neurological problems such as confusion, headache, and impairment of consciousness.

Apoplexy - Deaths attributed to apoplexy
*Joachim du Bellay

*Al CaponeThe New York Times, January 26, 1947:

*Nicolaus Copernicus

*Joseph DucreuxPastel and pastellists, February 13, 2013:

*Gabriel Dumont (Métis leader)|Gabriel Dumont

*Émile Gaboriau

*Leopold of Hohenzollern[

*Harry Ward LeonardThe New York Times, February 19, 1915:

*Toussaint Louverture

*Michel OrdenerSt. Hilaire, Military Household of the Emperor. Sixth Book, [ Napoleon Series]. Robert Burnham, editor in chief. September Accessed 18 May Mullié Charles. Michel Ordener. Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850, Paris, 1852.

*Horace Vere, 1st Baron Vere of Tilbury

*Joseph Weizenbaum

*Commodus's death was attributed to apoplexy at the time, although he was poisoned and strangled to death.

Apopa 'Apopa' is a municipality in the San Salvador Department|San Salvador Departments of El Salvador|department of El Salvador.

Apopa Probably the seventh biggest city in El Salvador with a little more than 150,000 people, the city has now collided with Soyapango and San Salvador, making it part of the Great San Salvador Metro (with a 1,900, population estimate).

Apopa - Geography 'Hydography:' The rivers crossing this municipality are Acelhuate, Las Cañas, Guaycume and Tomayate river.

Apopa - Geography 'Orography:' The hills within this municipality are El Sartén and El Guaycume hills.

Apopa - History The people of Apopa, were a part of the department of San Salvador from June 12, 1824, until March 9, 1836 when it transferred to the federal district of the Central American Federation until June 30, 1839 when it again returned to a municipality of the northern district of San Salvador with the dissolution of the Central American Federation.

Apopa - History On June 7, 1921 during the administration of Jorge Meléndez Apopa was conferred the title of the city of Villa Apopa.

Apopa - Sports The local professional football club is named C.D. Vendaval Apopa and it currently plays in the Segunda División de Fútbol Salvadoreño|Salvadoran Second Division after they merged with Chalatenango.

Osteopontin - Apoptosis
OPN is an important anti-apoptotic factor in many circumstances. OPN blocks the activation-induced cell death of macrophages and T cells as well as fibroblasts and endothelial cells exposed to harmful stimuli. OPN prevents non-programmed cell death in inflammatory colitis.

Hellzapoppin (musical)
[ Hellzapoppin - History of The Musical Stage 1930s: Part III - Revues] musicals101.com, accessed August 6, 2009 making it one of only three plays to run more than 500 performances in the 1930s.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Production
After opening at the Schubert Theatre in Boston on September 10, 1938, Hellzapoppin opened on Broadway theatre|Broadway at the original 46th Street Theatre on September 22, 1938, transferred to the Winter Garden Theatre on November 26, 1938, and finally moved to the Majestic Theatre (Broadway)|Majestic Theatre on November 25, 1941, closing on December 17, 1941, after a total of 1,404 performances.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Production
Olsen and Johnson led a large cast of entertainers: the comedy team of Barto and Mann (Dewey Barto and George Mann (Vaudeville Performer and Photographer)|George Mann); Charles Whithers; celebrity impersonators, the Radio Rogues; Hal Sherman; Walter Nilsson; singing group The Charioteers; identical-twin dancers Bettymae and Beverly Crane; stage magician Theodore Hardeen|Theo Hardeen (better known as Houdini's younger brother); the Hawaiian music of Ray Kinney and the Aloha Maids; Bergh and Moore; J

Hellzapoppin (musical) - On the Road
In late 1940 and during 1941, while Hellzapoppin was still playing at the Winter Garden Theatre and later the Majestic Theatre, a second edition of Hellzapoppin with Billy House and Teri Garr#Early life|Eddie Garr toured the country. The cast included Grace Nokko, The Oxford Boys, Sterner Sisters, Ben Dova, Paul Gordon, Billy Potter and Bobby Jarvis.

The road shows continued in the same style of sight gags, risqué humor, and audience involvement.Hinckley, David.[ 'Hellzapoppin,' 1938], nydailynews.com, September 1, 2005

and the Erlanger Theatre, Chicago, Illinois.[ October 17, 1942

In 1949 Olsen and Johnson went back on the road with Hellzapoppin of The all new cast featured Harrison Fisher, Shirley, Sharon Wanda, Nirska, Jose Duval, Gloria LeRoy, Frank Cook, 6 Mighty Atoms, Shannon Dean, Helen Magna, Andy Ratouscheff, Hank Whitehouse, John Howes, Billy Kay, Maurice Millard, Frank Hardy, J.C. Olsen, June Johnson, and Marty May.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - The Movie
A Hellzapoppin' (film)|film based on the stage musical was made by Universal Studios|Universal Pictures and released in Except for Olsen and Johnson, no one from any of the stage productions appeared in the movie.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Broadway revival
In 1976, there was an attempt to revive the show with a cast that included Jerry Lewis and Lynn Redgrave, but it closed on the road before reaching Broadway theatre|Broadway.[ Hellzapoppin 1976 revival, closed on the road before reaching Broadway, at BroadwayWorld.com]

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Broadway revival
The television show Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In ( ) was an attempt to replicate the fast-paced, anything-can-happen atmosphere for a new generation.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Sketches
The sketches were a smorgasbord of explode-the-fourth-wall nuttiness:...comedy songs; skits abandoned partway through; cameos by audience stooges; an absurdist raffle; and in a trademark stunt, a man who wandered through the theater hawking an ever-larger potted tree.Wren, Celia.[ 'Hellzapoppin' in Arlington: Well, That's Show Business], washingtonpost.com, July 19, 2007

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Sketches
As an actress walked the aisles yelling, Oscar!, another loudly said that she was just going to use the bathroom. When this started to overwhelm, an actor started loudly selling tickets to another Broadway show, I Married an Angel.

Hellzapoppin (musical) - Songs
The songs were decidedly less important to the show's success than was its comedy. Lyrics and music by Sammy Fain and Charles Tobias (unless otherwise noted).

*Strolling Thru the Park

*Abe Lincoln (Music and Lyrics By Earl Robinson and Alfred Hayes)

*Ol' Man Mose' (Music and Lyrics By Louis Armstrong and Zilner T. Randolph)

*When You Look in Your Looking Glass (Lyrics By Sam M. Lewis, Music By Paul Mann and Stephen Weiss)

*Boomps-a-Daisy (I Like a Bustle that Bends)

Songs featured during the run also include work by Don George, Teddy Hall, Annette Mills, Gonzalo Curiel, and Oscar Hammerstein II.

Focal adhesion kinase - Role in Apoptosis
Overexpression of FAK leads to inhibition of apoptosis and an increase in the prevalence of metastatic tumors.

University of Texas School of Law - Bernard and Audre Rapoport Center for Human Rights and Justice
'The Bernard and Audre Rapoport Center for Human Rights and Justice', located at the University of Texas School of Law, serves as a focal point for critical, interdisciplinary analysis and practice of human rights and social justice.” The Rapoport Center was founded in 2004 by Professor [ Karen Engle], Minerva House Drysdale Regents Chair in Law, thanks to a generous gift from the Bernard and Audre Rapoport Foundation to the University of Texas School of Law. The Rapoport Foundation was founded in 1986 by Bernard Rapoport and his wife Audre

University of Texas School of Law - Bernard and Audre Rapoport Center for Human Rights and Justice
The Rapoport Center will work with the Dolph Briscoe Center for American History (where Farenthold’s papers are housed) in order to process and preserve Farenthold's papers, digitize archival documents and images, produce videotaped interviews, and expand the content of the Rapoport Center's website.

Nuclear lamina - Apoptosis
Apoptosis (cellular suicide) is of the highest importance in homeostasis of tissue and in defending the organism against invasive entry of viruses or other pathogens. Apoptosis is a highly regulated process in which the nuclear lamina is disassembled in an early stage.

Nuclear lamina - Apoptosis
In contrast to the phosphorylation-induced disassembly during mitosis, the nuclear lamina is degraded by proteolytic cleavage, and both the lamins and the nuclear lamin-associated membrane proteins are targeted. This proteolytic activity is performed by members of the caspase-protein family who cleave the lamins after aspartic acid (Asp) residues.

Goa'uld characters in Stargate - Apophis
Their team escapes death by Apophis with the help of his then-First Prime, Teal'c, though not before witnessing Sha're and Skaara being taken as hosts.

Apophis also fathers a Harcesis child with Amonet/Sha're

Shortly after, Sokar is killed when the Tok'ra destroy Ne'tu, leaving Apophis in control of his domain.

Swarmed by Replicators, Apophis is helpless as his ship plummets into Delmak.

Apophis appears briefly in Stargate: Continuum as the last System Lord defeated by Ba'al; Teal'c brings him before Ba'al, who executes him by slicing off the top of his head.

David J. Tholen and Roy A. Tucker, two astronomers who are reportedly fans of Stargate SG-1, named a near-Earth asteroid that they co-discovered in 2004, Apophis as an allusion to the Stargate villain.

Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein
The 'cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein' (CAS) is an exportin which in the nucleus is bound to RanGTP.

Population dynamics of fisheries - Metapopulation
A metapopulation is a group of spatially separated populations of the same species which interact at some level

A metapopulation generally consists of several distinct populations together with areas of suitable habitat which are currently unoccupied. Each population cycles in relative independence of the other populations and eventually goes extinct as a consequence of demographic stochasticity (fluctuations in population size due to random demographic events); the smaller the population, the more prone it is to extinction.

Although individual populations have finite life-spans, the population as a whole is often stable because immigrants from one population (which may, for example, be experiencing a population boom) are likely to re-colonize habitat which has been left open by the extinction of another population. They may also emigrate to a small population and rescue that population from extinction (called the rescue effect).

DAXX - Anti-apoptotic function
A rather surprising property of Daxx is its anti-apoptotic function. When Daxx was not expressed or disrupted during embryonic development, it resulted in an early stage lethality. Other studies showed that lack of Daxx gene caused a higher apoptotic rate in embryonic stem cells.

DAXX - Anti-apoptotic function
Only when Daxx was bound to Pml were apoptosis rates higher, suggesting that associated cytoplasmic Daxx has the role of an anti-apoptotic molecule.

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