1. An Introduction to Organic Reactions
Acids and Bases

2. Reaction types
Organic reactions fall into one of four general reaction types:
Substitutions
Additions
Eliminations
Rearrangements

3. Substitutions
Reactions in which one group replaces another. For example:

4. Additions
Reactions in which two molecules combine. For example:

5. Eliminations
Reactions in which a molecule loses the elements of another smaller molecule. For example:

6. Rearrangements
Reactions in which a molecule undergoes a reorganization of its constituent parts. For example:

7. Acid – Base Reactions Remember this reaction?
What type of reaction is it?
Lets review acid – base concepts as they are fundamental to the understanding of organic chemistry.

8. Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
An acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.

9. Conjugate acid-base pairs
A conjugate acid - base pair only differs by ONE proton.
Draw the conjugate base of:
OH-, CH4, H2SO4, H3O+

10. Conjugate acid-base pairs
A conjugate acid - base pair only differs by ONE proton.
Draw the conjugate acid of:
H3O+, CH3CO2H, HPO42-

11. Celestolide is a perfuming agent with a musk odor
Celestolide is a perfuming agent with a musk odor. It is prepared using the sequence of reactions shown below:
Write an equation for the first step in the mechanism that explains the formation of “intermediate 1”.

12. Acids and bases
An example of an acid-base reaction:
What about...

13. Acids and bases An example of an acid-base reaction: thus...
a base is an electron-pair donor!

14. Lewis acids and bases
An acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor.
base
acid

15. Lewis acids
Molecules having an atom that has less than an octet of valence electrons. E.g. BF3
Cations. For example Mg2+, Be2+, Al3+, (CH3)3C+
Molecules having an atom with empty d orbitals.

16. Lewis acids
Molecules having a double or triple bond between atoms of very different electronegativity :-

17. Lewis bases Anions:- CN-, CH3CO2-
Molecules capable of donating electron pairs:- NH3, H2O

18. Classify the following as Lewis acid, Lewis base or both:
Lewis acids and bases
Classify the following as Lewis acid, Lewis base or both:
H2O, CN-, CH3+, CH3NH2 ..

19. Relative strengths of acids and bases
~ 10-5

20. Relative strengths of acids and bases
The stronger the acid, the weaker will be its conjuguate base.
Remember: Ka = Kw/Kb and pKa + pKb = pKw = 14

21. Predicting the result of acid – base reactions
Acid – base reactions always favour the formation of the weaker acid and the weaker base.
They are said to be under thermodynamic or equilibrium control.
We can now predict that aniline, a base, will dissolve in aqueous HCl: +

22. A problem!
Let’s use these basic ideas about acids and bases to solve a real-life problem: the separation of a mixture of organic compounds.
Consider the following compounds:
naphthalene
neutral
benzoic acid
acid
aniline
base

23. The separation of a mixture
a salt - water soluble
soluble in CH2Cl2
insoluble in water

24. The acid component is isolated
water soluble water insoluble
benzoic acid precipitates
and is filtered off
HCl - stronger acid
benzoic acid - weaker acid

25. Separation of the basic component

26. Isolation of the base
NaOH - stronger base
aniline - weaker base

27. Structure and acidity
Acid strength depends on the strength of the bond to the proton.
Bond strength decreases as we descend a group in the periodic table therefore acidity increases.
HF < HCl < HBr < HI
pKa
The order of the strengths of their conjugate bases is the opposite: F- > Cl- > Br- > I-

28. Structure and acidity Acidity increase from left to right in a period.
The electronegativity of the atom bonded to the proton affects acidity in two ways:
It affects the polarity of the bond to the proton.
It affects the relative stability of the conjugate base.
H3C-H H2N-H HO-H F-H
Ka x x 10-4

29. The effect of hybridization
2s electrons have lower energy than 2p electrons as they tend to be much closer to the nucleus.
Electrons associated with hybrid orbitals having more s character will, on average, be lower in energy.
An sp carbon is more electronegative than an sp2 carbon
The greater the s character, the more stable the conjugate base, the carbanion.

30. Inductive effects Fluoroethane is a polar molecule:
In addition, carbon 2 is less positive than carbon 1 as it is further from the electronegative F.
This electron-attracting ability of the fluorine that is transmitted through space and through bonds is an example of an inductive effect.
These effects weaken as the distance from the substituent increases.

31. Stability and potential energy
Inductive effects can stabilize or destabilize systems. But what does the chemist mean by “stability”?
Chemical energy is a form of potential energy. It exists due to the attractive and repulsive forces between the molecular particles.
We compare systems in terms of their relative potential energies.
The more potential energy a system has, the less stable it is.

32. Stability and potential energy
The formation of bonds always lowers the potential energy of a system.
We represent the relative potential energies of reactants and products in terms of their relative enthalpies.
In an exothermic reaction, the products have lower potential energies.
In an endothermic reaction, the potential energy of the products is higher than that of the reactants. The products are less stable.

33. Stability and potential energy

34. Stability and potential energy

35. Exothermicity
When thermodynamics was a young science, it was believed that in order to be spontaneous, a reaction must be exothermic.
However many spontaneous processes, such as the spontaneous melting of ice at temperatures above 0oC, are endothermic processes.
Thus one cannot use “enthalpy” to predict spontaneity!

36. Entropy
What is the factor that explains the spontaneity of different processes?
Scientists have identified it as an increase in a property called “entropy” (S).
Entropy is a measure of the order of a system.
There is a natural tendency to proceed from a more ordered system to one that is more disordered.

37. Free energy
There is another thermodynamic function associated with spontaneity – free energy.
The free energy change, G°, integrates enthalpy change and entropy change:
G° = H° - TS°
A reaction which takes place at a constant temperature is spontaneous only if G is negative.
Thus H° < 0 and S° > 0 favour the formation of products.

38. Free energy
There is a relationship between the equilibrium constant and the standard free energy change for a reaction:
G° = -RTln(K)
Thus a negative value of G° is associated with reactions that favour the formation of products when equilibrium is attained.
Indeed reactions having G° less than -13 kJ/mol are said to be quantitative.

39. Problems
Try problems 3.8 and 3.9 on page 115 of Solomons and Fryhle.

40. Acidity of carboxylic acids
Carboxylic acids are far more acidic than the corresponding alcohols:
Why?

41. An explanation based on resonance effects

42. Structure of carboxylate ions

43. An explanation based on inductive effects

44. Substituent effects CH3CO2H ClCH2CO2H Cl2CHCO2H Cl3CCO2H
Ka x x x x10-5
HCO2H CH3CO2H CH3CH2CH2CO2H
Ka x x x10-5

45. Problems
Try problems 3.27 – 3.31 on page 130 of Solomons and Fryhle.