Introduction to Career Development Interventions

Introduction to Career Development Interventions
Chapter 1

Misconceptions About Career Counseling
Focuses on occupational information and test administration Requires different and less sophisticated skills Requires the counselor to be directive Is irrelevant to future work as a counselor

Career Development Interventions
The skills and techniques required encompass and extend those required in more general counseling. The focus of counseling is to increase life satisfaction. Clients need a high level of self-awareness to translate their experiences into career choices.

Career Development Interventions, continued
People often need help in clarifying their values, life-role salience, interests, and motivation as they attempt to make career choices. Many clients come to career counseling with psychological distress, low self-esteem, weak self-efficacy, and little hope that the future can be more satisfying than the past.

Skills, Behaviors, and Attitudes People Need to Manage Careers
Learn new skills, cope with change, and tolerate ambiguity Acquire general and specific occupational information Interact with diverse co-workers Adjust to changing work demands Use technology

Characteristics of Effective Interventions
Holistic, comprehensive, and systematic Provided developmentally across the life span

Meaning of Work Across Time
Survival (primitive societies) Opportunity to share with others (early Christians) Means of spiritual purification (Middle Ages) Way to serve God (Protestant Reformation)

Meaning of Work Across Time continued
Opportunity for self-sufficiency and self-discipline (19th century) Challenge to find a fitting long-term career (20th century) Means to self-fulfillment (21st century)

Linking Work with Worth (Terrence Bell)
Means by which a person is tested and identified Shapes the thoughts and life of a worker Determines lifestyle Determines self-image and image others have of an individual

Definition of Work (Super)
The systematic pursuit of an objective valued by oneself and desired by others; directed and consecutive, it requires effort. It may be compensated or uncompensated. The objective may be intrinsic enjoyment of work itself, the structure given to life by the work role, the economic support which work makes possible, or the type of leisure which it facilitates.

Results of a Poll by the National Career Development Association
39% of Americans do not have a career plan. 69% do not know how to make informed career choices. Almost half of all workers experience job-related stress and think that their skills are being underutilized in their jobs.

Career and Health High levels of career uncertainty and occupational dissatisfaction are positively correlated with high levels of psychological and physical distress (Herr, 1989). High levels of unemployment are associated with increased rates of chemical dependency, interpersonal violence, suicide, criminal activity, and admissions to psychiatric facilities (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004).

Learning from Systematic Career Development Interventions
How to use both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making How to assign importance to each life role and the values one seeks through those roles How to cope with ambiguity, change, and transition How to develop and maintain self-awareness

Learning from Systematic Career Development Interventions
How to develop and maintain occupational and career awareness How to develop and keep current occupational skills and knowledge How to engage in lifelong learning How to search for jobs effectively How to provide and receive career mentoring How to develop and maintain skills in multicultural awareness and communication

Career Today career is conceptualized as a lifestyle concept -
the course of events constituting a life (Super, 1976) the total constellation of roles played over the course of a lifetime (Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004)

Career Development The lifelong psychological and behavioral processes and contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span A person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, expression of values, and life-role self-concepts

Activities that empower people to cope effectively with career development tasks-- development of self-awareness development of occupational awareness learning decision-making skills acquiring job search skills adjusting to choices after their implementation coping with job stress

Career Counseling A formal relationship in which a professional counselor assists a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns through establishing rapport. assessing client concerns. establishing goals. intervening in effective ways. evaluating client progress.

Career Education The systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults through various types of educational strategies -- including provision of occupational information. infusion of career concepts into the academic curriculum. offering of worksite-based experiences. offering career planning courses.

Career Development Program
A systematic program of counselor-coordinated information and experiences designed to facilitate individual career development (Herr & Kramer, 1996)

Principles of Frank Parsons
It is better to choose a vocation than merely to hunt a job. No one should choose a vocation without careful self-analysis. Youth should survey many vocations, not just drop into a convenient or accidental position.

Principles of Frank Parsons, continued
Considering expert advice provided by those who have made a careful study of people, vocations, and the conditions of success improves decision making. Putting thoughts down on paper seems simple, but is of supreme importance.

The Parsonian Approach
Step 1: Develop a clear understanding of yourself -- aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources, limitations, and other qualities. Step 2: Develop knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, pay, opportunities, and prospects of jobs. Step 3: Use true reasoning to relate these two groups of facts.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory
Because of one’s psychological characteristics, each worker is best fitted for a specific type of work. Workers in different occupations have different psychological characteristics. Occupational choice is a single, point-in-time event.

Basic Assumptions of Trait-and-Factor Theory, continued
Career development is mostly a cognitive process relying on rational decision making. Occupational adjustment depends on the degree of agreement between worker characteristics and work demands.

Williamson’s Six-Step Process
Analysis Synthesis Diagnosis Prognosis Counseling Follow-up

Williamson’s Description of a Client’s Presenting Problem
No choice Uncertain choice Unwise choice Discrepancy between interests and aptitudes

Parsons’ Contributions
Paved the way for vocational guidance in schools and colleges Began the training of counselors Used the scientific tools available to him Developed steps to be followed in the vocational progress of an individual Organized the work of the Vocation Bureau as a model

Parsons’ Contributions, continued
Recognized the importance of his work and secured publicity, financial support, and endorsements Laid the groundwork leading to the continuance and expansion of the vocational guidance movement Wrote Choosing a Vocation

Later Developments Testing movement (early 20th century)
Formation of NVGA (1913) Formation of Department of Labor (1913) Vocational Rehabilitation Act (1918) Formation of United States Employment Service (1933) First edition of Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1939)

Later Developments, continued
Increased personnel testing and placement (World War II) Carl Roger’s book Counseling and Psychotherapy (1942) Formation of APA Division 17 (1947) Formation of APGA (1951) Theory development (1960s)

Later Developments, continued
Increase in number of career assessments (1960s) Development of computer-assisted career planning systems (late 1960s) Career education as a national priority (1970s) Attention to the career development of diverse populations (1990s)

Factors Influencing 21st Century Career Development
Global unemployment Corporate downsizing Demise of social contract Dual careers Work from home Intertwining of work and family roles Many job shifts Need for lifelong learning

Ways to Construct Responsive Interventions in the 21st Century
View career decisions as values-based decisions Offer counseling-based career assistance (move beyond assessment) Provide multicultural career interventions Focus on multiple life roles

Understanding and Applying Theories of Career Development
Chapter 2

Questions to Ask About Theories
How well does the theory describe the career development process for diverse populations? describe the career development process generally? identify the factors involved in career choice?

Questions to Ask About Theories continued
How well does the theory inform practice? provide documentation of empirical support? cover all aspects of career development?

Super’s Life-Span, Life-Space Theory
A differential-developmental-social-phenomenological career theory (Super, 1969) Built on 14 assumptions

Assumptions of Super’s Theory
People differ in their abilities, personalities, needs, values, interests, traits, and self-concepts. People are qualified, by virtue of these characteristics, for a number of occupations. Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits.

Assumptions of Super’s Theory continued
Vocational preferences and competencies, the situations in which people live and work, and hence, their self-concepts change with time and experience. The nature of the career pattern…is determined by the individual’s parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality characteristics, career maturity, and by the opportunities to which he or she is exposed.

Success in coping at any given life-career stage depends on the readiness of the individual to cope with the demands of that stage. Career maturity is a constellation of physical, psychological, and social characteristics.

Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and the development of self-concepts. The process of career development is essentially that of development and implementing occupational self-concepts.

Assumptions of Super’s Theory, continued
Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, and self-concepts. Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization for most men and women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral or even nonexistent.

Life Span Growth - fantasy, interests, capacities
Exploration - crystallizing, specifying, implementing Establishment - stabilizing, consolidating, advancing Maintenance - holding, updating, innovating Disengagement - decelerating, retirement planning, retirement living

Life Space While workers are busy earning a living, they are also busy living a life (Savickas) The simultaneous combination of life roles we play constitutes the life style; their sequential combination structures the life space and constitutes the life cycle; the total structure is the career pattern. (Super)

Life Space, continued The salience people attach to the constellation of life roles they play defines life structure. The life space segment of the theory acknowledges that people differ in the degree of importance they attach to work.

Life Roles People tend to play some or all of nine major roles:
Son or daughter Student Leisurite Citizen Worker Spouse (Partner) Homemaker Parent Pensioner

Life Roles The theaters for these life roles are the home, school,
workplace, and community.

Self-Concept Career decisions reflect our attempts at translating our self-understanding into career terms. (Super, 1984) Self-concepts contain both objective and subjective elements. Self-concepts continue to develop over time, making career choices and adjusting to them lifelong tasks.

Career Development and Assessment (C-DAC Model)
Super and his colleagues translated the three segments of the theory into the C-DAC Model. Assessments used in the model include Career Development Inventory Adult Career Concerns Inventory Salience Inventory Values Scale Self-Directed Search

Super’s Thematic Extrapolation Method
Addresses subjective career development Gives counselors the role of historians who invite clients to construct autobiographical stories of development Life stories are examined for recurrent themes or threads of continuity that make sense of the past, explain the present, and draw a blueprint for the future.

Steps in the Thematic Extrapolation Method
Step 1: Analyze past behavior and development for recurring themes and underlying trends. Step 2: Summarize each theme and trend, taking into account the other themes and trends. Step 3: Project the modified themes and trends into the future by extrapolation.

Steps in Super’s Cyclical Model of Career Counseling
Nondirective problem exploration and self-concept portrayal Directive topic setting Nondirective reflection and clarification of feeling for self-acceptance and insight Directive exploration for factual data Nondirective exploration of attitudes and feelings Nondirective consideration of possible actions

Gottfredson’s Theory Addresses the fact that men and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations Offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development Focuses primarily on the career development process as it relates to the types of compromises people make

Gottfredson’s Theory, continued
Circumscription - the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class Compromise - the process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors, such as availability of jobs

Circumscription: Stages of Development
Stage 1: Orientation to size and power Stage 2: Orientation to sex roles Stage 3: Orientation to social valuation Stage 4: Orientation to the internal, unique self

Applying Gottfredson’s Theory to Practice
Programs should be sensitive to the mental capabilities of the age group. introduce students to the full breadth of options. display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives. be sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscriptions and compromise take place so that their role can be explored.

Gottfredson’s Criteria for Determining a Counselee’s Restriction of Options
Able to name one or more occupational options Possesses interests and abilities adequate for the occupation(s) chosen Satisfied with the alternatives identified Has not unnecessarily restricted alternatives Is aware of opportunities and realistic about obstacles

Holland’s Theory of Person-Environment Interactions
Most persons can be categorized as one of six types: Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Holland’s Theory, continued
There are six environments: Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Holland’s Theory, continued
People search for environments that will let them use their skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. A person’s behavior is determined by an interaction between his or her personality and the characteristics of his or her environment.

The Realistic Type Conforming Humble Frank Materialistic Persistent
Genuine Practical Hardheaded Shy Honest Thrifty

The Investigative Type
Analytical Independent Cautious Intellectual Pessimistic Introverted Precise Critical Rational Curious Reserved

The Artistic Type Imaginative Original Disorderly Impractical
Intuitive Emotional Impulsive Nonconforming Expressive Open

The Social Type Idealistic Helpful Cooperative Kind Sympathetic
Friendly Patient Tactful Generous Responsible Understanding

The Enterprising Type Domineering Optimistic Adventurous Energetic
Pleasure-seeking Extroverted Ambitious Impulsive Self-confident Sociable Popular

The Conventional Type Conforming Inhibited Persistent Conscientious
Obedient Practical Careful Orderly Thrifty Efficient Unimaginative

The Realistic Environment
Requires explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, or animals Encourages people to view themselves as having mechanical ability Rewards people for displaying conventional values and encourages them to see the world in simple, tangible, and traditional terms

The Investigative Environment
Requires the symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological or cultural phenomena Encourages scientific competencies and achievements and seeing the world in complex and unconventional ways Rewards people for displaying scientific values

The Artistic Environment
Requires participation in ambiguous, free, and unsystematized activities to create art forms or products Encourages people to view themselves as having artistic abilities and to see themselves as expressive, nonconforming, independent, and intuitive Rewards people for the display of artistic values

The Social Environment
Requires participation in activities that inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten Requires people to see themselves as liking to help others, as being understanding of others, and of seeing the world in flexible ways Rewards people for the display of social values

The Enterprising Environment
Requires participation in activities that involve the manipulation of others to attain organizational and self-interest goals Requires people to view themselves as aggressive, popular, self-confident, and sociable Encourages people to view the world in terms of power and status Rewards people for displaying enterprising goals and values

The Conventional Environment
Requires participation in activities that involve the explicit, ordered, or systematic manipulation of data Requires people to view themselves as conforming, orderly, nonartistic, and as having clerical competencies Rewards people for viewing the world in stereotyped and conventional ways

Key Terms Differentiation - the degree of difference between a person’s resemblance to one type and to other types; the shape of a profile of interests Congruence - the degree of fit between an individual’s personality type and current or prospective work environment

Key Terms, continued Consistency - degree of relatedness between types
Vocational identity - possession of a clear and stable picture of one’s goals, interests, and talent

Applying Holland’s Theory
Relies on assessment instruments used to measure congruence, differentiation, consistency, and vocational identity: Self-Directed Search Vocational Preference Inventory My Vocational Situation Position Classification Inventory

Applying Holland’s Theory
Code can be used to identify occupations, jobs, majors, and leisure activities Types can be used to organize curriculum, career fairs, and information about occupations, jobs, and majors

Krumboltz’s Learning Theory: Influential Factors
Genetic endowment and special abilities - sex, race, physical appearance, intelligence, abilities, and talents Environmental conditions and events - cultural, social, political, and economic forces beyond our control Instrumental and associative learning experiences

Outcomes of the Factors Influencing Career Decision Making
Self-observation generalizations Worldview generalizations Task approach skills Actions

Reasons Why People Prefer a Particular Occupation
They succeed at tasks they believe are like those performed in that occupation. They have observed a valued model being reinforced for activities like those performed by members of that occupation. A valued friend or relative stressed its advantages to them; they observed positive words and images associated with it.

The Learning Theory of Career Counseling (Mitchell & Krumboltz)
Counselors must be prepared to help clients cope with career concerns in four ways: Expand their capabilities and interests Prepare them for changing work tasks Empower them to take action Play a major role in dealing with all career problems

Career Counselors Need to Help Clients by
Correcting faulty assumptions. Learning new skills and interests. Identifying effective strategies for addressing issues emanating from interactions between work and other life roles. Learning skills for coping with changing work tasks.

Understanding and Applying Emerging Theories of Career Development
Chapter 3

Characteristics of Emerging Theories
Draw upon a solid foundation of research support Attempt to address the career development needs of diverse client populations Reflect two major trends emphasis on cognitive approaches clients’ active role in career construction

Lent, Brown, & Hackett’s Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
Builds on the assumption that cognitive factors play an important role in career development and decision making Is closely linked to Krumboltz’s learning theory of career counseling Incorporates Bandura’s triadic reciprocal model of causality

Self-Efficacy (Bandura)
Defined as people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances

Forces Shaping Self-Efficacy Beliefs (Bandura)
Personal performance accomplishments Vicarious learning Social persuasion Physiological states and reactions

Triadic Reciprocal Model
The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex This occurs within the framework of causality comprised of personal attributes external environmental factors overt behavior

SCCT Career Development Interventions
Directed toward self-efficacy beliefs outcome expectations

The Cognitive Information Processing Model
Uses a pyramid to describe the domains of cognition involved in a career choice: self-knowledge occupational knowledge decision-making skills The fourth domain is metacognitions and includes self-talk self-awareness monitoring and control of cognitions

CASVE Cycle This is the second dimension of the CIP approach and represents a generic model of information processing. Skills included are communication analysis synthesis valuing execution

Applying the CIP Approach
The pyramid model can be used as a framework for providing career development. The five steps of the CASVE cycle can be used to teach decision-making skills. The executive processing domain provides a framework for exploring and challenging.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon)
Step 1 - Conduct initial interview with client. Step 2 - Do a preliminary assessment to determine the client’s readiness. Step 3 - Work with client to define the career problem(s) and analyze causes. Step 4 - Collaborate with client to formulate achievable problem-solving and decision-making goals.

Sequence for Delivering Career Interventions (Peterson, Sampson, & Reardon)
Step 5 - Provide clients with a list of activities and resources they need (individual learning plans). Step 6 - Require clients to execute their individual learning plans. Step 7 - Conduct a summative review of client progress and generalize new learning to other career problems.

Values-Based Model of Career Choice (Brown)
Values with high priority are the most important determinants of choice from among alternatives. Values included in one’s value system are acquired from society; each person adopts a small number of these. Culture, sex, and socioeconomic status influence opportunities and social interaction, resulting in a wide variation of values in subgroups of society.

Propositions of Values-Based Model (Brown), continued
Making choices that coincide with values is essential to satisfaction. Life satisfaction is the result of role interaction. High-functioning people have well- developed and prioritized values. Success in any role depends on the abilities required to perform the role’s functions.

Applying the Values-Based Approach
This approach classifies clients into two categories: those making planned decisions those making unplanned decisions For all clients, counselors must assess whether there are important intrapersonal value conflicts. mood problems exist. values have been crystallized and prioritized. client can use values-based information. client understands how career choices affect other life roles.

Clients Making Planned Career Changes
Counselors need to assess how issues related to intrarole and interrole conflict may be contributing to client career dissatisfaction. degree of client flexibility related to geographical location, training opportunities, and qualifications.

Clients Making Unplanned Career Changes
Counselors must assess whether there are mood problems. there are financial concerns. existing career opportunities can satisfy values. clients can make changes to increase the satisfaction they derive from other life roles.

Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning (ILP)
ILP is a worldview for addressing career development rather than a theory that can be translated into individual counseling. The integrative aspect of ILP relates to the emphasis on integrating the mind, body, and spirit. The life planning concept acknowledges that multiple aspects of life are interrelated.

Assumptions of ILP Changes in the nature of knowledge support new ways of knowing related to career development. Broader kinds of self-knowledge and societal knowledge are critical to an expanded view of career. Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents.

Six Career Development Tasks Confronting Adults
Finding work that needs doing in changing global contexts Weaving their lives into a meaningful whole Connecting family and work Valuing pluralism and inclusivity Managing personal transitions and organizational change Exploring spirituality and life purpose

Applying ILP Career counselors should help their clients
understand these six tasks. see the interrelatedness of the tasks. help clients prioritize the tasks according to their needs.

Postmodern Approaches
These are theories and interventions that depart from the positivistic scientific tradition that has dominated social and behavioral science research and most of the normative career development research (Vondracek & Kawaski).

Creating Narratives Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot. This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot. Howard (1989) noted that people tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and de-emphasize other parts.

Ways in Which Narratives Help Clients (Cochran)
A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end. A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole. The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished. The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution.

Ways to Use a Narrative Approach in Career Counseling
Elaborate a career problem. Compose a life history. Build a future narrative. Construct reality. Change a life structure. Enact a role. Crystallize a decision.

Contextualizing Career Development
Acts are viewed as purposive and as being directed toward specific goals. Acts are embedded in their context. Change plays a dominant role in career development. Contextualism rejects a theory of truth based on the correspondence between mental representations and objective reality.

Constructivist Career Counseling
How can I form a cooperative alliance with this client? (Relationship factor) How can I encourage the self-helpfulness of this client? (Agency factor) How can I help this client to elaborate and evaluate his/her constructions germane to this decision? (Meaning-making factor) How can I help this client to reconstruct and negotiate personally meaningful and socially supportable realities? (Negotiation factor)

Career Development and Diverse Populations
Chapter 4

Definition of Multicultural Counseling
A helping process that places the emphasis for counseling theory and practice equally on the cultural impression of both the counselor and the client (Axelson, 1985)

Predictions by Johnston and Packer
Average age of workforce will rise while the pool of young workers will decrease. More women will enter the workforce. Minorities will make up a larger share of the new entrants into the workforce. Immigrants will make up the largest share of increase in the population and workforce since World War I.

Some Basic Facts Unemployment rate for African Americans has been above 11% each year since 1978 (2 1/2 times the rate for Whites). Only 36.9% of African American men are employed as executives, administrators, salespersons, and managers (compared to 61.8% for White men).

Some Basic Facts, continued
More than half of employed Hispanic women are clerical workers or operatives. Poverty rate of Native Americans is twice (23.7%) that of the general population. Men are 18.7 times as likely to be in higher prestige occupations in science, math, or technology than women. Only 33.6% of persons with disabilities are in the workforce.

American Assumptions Individualism and autonomy Affluence
Opportunity open to all Centrality of work in people’s lives Linearity and rationality of the career development process

Universal or Culture-Specific Models?
Etic perspectives - maintain that career interventions for members of minority groups should be the same as those used for the majority. Emic perspectives - highlight the importance of offering career development interventions that are specific to the client’s culture.

Universal Elements of Healing in All Cultures (Fischer et al.)
The therapeutic relationship Shared worldview Client expectations Ritual or intervention

Acculturation The process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group (Stein,1975) Language familiarity and usage, cultural heritage, ethnicity, ethnic pride and identity, interethnic interactions, and interethnic distance influence acculturation (Padilla, 1980) Persons may be marginal (not accepting either culture fully) or bicultural (accepting both fully)

Racial Identity Models
Models of racial identity help us understand that the status of racial identity -- for both counselors and clients -- can influence the career intervention process at several levels.

Using Assessment Must assure that assessment is valid, reliable, and appropriate for the client’s cultural and linguistic context. Must assure that the test does not have cultural bias.

Five Stages of Racial Identity Development (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue)
Conformity Dissonance Resistance and immersion Introspection Synergy

Cross Model Pre-encounter Encounter Immersion-Emersion Internalization
Internalization-Commitment

Gender Differences in Socialization
Stereotypically reinforce competition and skill mastery in boys, relationships and connectedness in girls Affect initial selection of occupation and opportunities for mentoring and promotion

Feminist Identity Model (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnson)
Stage 1: Passive Acceptance Stage 2: Revelation Stage 3: Embeddedness-Emancipation Stage 4: Synthesis Stage 5: Active Commitment

Special Needs of Women (Cook, Heppner, & O’Brien)
Dealing with attending to the needs of others Learning to negotiate in the workplace Accessing quality child care Handling sexual harassment in the workplace Accessing mentors

Special Needs of Men Understanding how socialization has influenced their career behaviors Learning to express feelings Learning how to manage and reduce stress Identifying strategies to participate more fully in life roles other than work

Four-Stage Model of Lesbian Identity Development (Sophie)
Stage 1: Awareness of homosexual feelings without disclosing these to others Stage 2: Testing and exploration of emerging homosexual identity with limited disclosure to heterosexuals Stage 3: Identity acceptance and preference for gay social interactions Stage 4: Identify integration with movement from a dichotomous (homosexual, heterosexual) worldview to integrated

Six-Stage Model of Identity Development for Gay Men and Lesbian Women (Cass, 1979)
Confusion Comparison Tolerance Acceptance Pride Synthesis

Five-Stage Model of Lesbian Identity Development (Chapman & Brannock)
Same-sex orientation -- feeling different about other females, but lacking a name for those feelings Incongruence, social isolation, and confusion about heterosexual dating Self-questioning and exploration with strong bonds with other females Identification as lesbian Choice of lifestyle -- woman as long-term mate or not

Definition of Persons with Disabilities
One who is usually considered to be different from a normal person -- physically, physiologically, neurologically, or psychologically -- because of accident, disease, birth defect, or developmental problem (Herr & Cramer, 1996)

Another Definition A person who has physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, or has a record of such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment (Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990)

Americans with Disabilities Act
Employers can only consider essential job functions when hiring or promoting. Employers must make reasonable accommodations in the workplace.

Career Development Issues of Persons with Disabilities (Zunker, 1998)
Adjusting to disability Confronting attitudinal barriers Lack of role models Developing social/interpersonal skills Developing a positive self-concept Developing skills for independent living

Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities
Interpret and advise about legislation, policy, guidelines, and rights Use diagnostic and informal assessment Assess functional limitations and adapt methods of occupational exploration Apply theory to assist with analysis of self-concept or developmental tasks deficits

Competencies for Working with Persons with Disabilities, continued
Engage in effective individual and group counseling Team with other specialists for career planning and placement Work with employers to develop or restructure jobs Plan and implement skill-building workshops or experiences

Components of Culturally Sensitive Career Interventions (Herr & Kramer)
Possession of knowledge and skills appropriate in any helping relationship Recognition of personal attitudes and values Knowledge of cultural context from which clients come Ability to identify special needs

Components of Culturally Sensitive Career Interventions, continued
Ability to assist culturally different clients understand that they do have choices, some of which include consequences. Skill to assist culturally different individuals to deal effectively with discrimination when it does occur Skill to discern between client deficits that result from socioeconomic class and those from membership in a racial or ethnic group

Assessment and Career Planning
Chapter 5

Introduction Assessment is the use of any formal or informal technique to collect data about a client. It is a tool of the trait-and-factor approach, which had its beginning with the three-step career choice process introduced by Frank Parsons.

Guidelines for Use of Trait-and-Factor Approach in 21st Century
Test data are only one piece of a much larger puzzle. should be used less for prediction and more for identifying new options. The client should be more involved in making the decision about whether to use assessment and for what purposes.

Assessment and the Career Planning Process
Step 1 - may use an instrument to measure career maturity, career beliefs or decision-making style Step 2 - may use inventories to measure interests, abilities, skills, work values, or personality type

Step 3 - Score report from inventories given in Step 2 will suggest occupations. Step 4 - Assessment not likely to be used. Step 5 - Inventories of work-related values may be used to reduce number of options.

Step 6 - Tests that predict success in college or measure achievement in specific subject matter may be used. Step 7 - Instruments that measure work skills or personality type may be used.

Purposes of Assessment
Counselors can learn more about the needs (decision-making skills, career maturity, removal of irrational beliefs) of clients. Counselors can learn more about the characteristics (interests, abilities, skills, values, personality) of clients.

Purposes of Assessment
Clients can learn more about themselves (such as their interests, skills, abilities, work values, personality type). Counselors can measure the progress (in acquiring career maturity,decision-making skills, career decidedness) of an individual or group of individuals.

Counselor Responsibilities
Follow ethical guidelines provided by professional associations Possess knowledge basic principles of assessment details of specific instruments to be used how to prepare clients/students how to administer properly how to interpret properly

Characteristics of Informal Assessment
Instruments not subjected to scientific study Results for one person cannot be compared with those of others No standard linkage between results and occupational choices No standard way to interpret results

Types of Informal Assessment
Checklists Games Career fantasies Forced-choice activities Card sorts Structured interviews

Characteristics of Formal Assessment
Known validity (instrument measures what it claims to measure) Known reliability (results of a later administration will be highly similar to those of first administration)

Characteristics of Formal Assessment
Fairness related to diversity (instrument adequately researched with kinds of individuals who will later take the instrument) Measures of comparison (compares the scores of one individual with those of others)

Common Interest Inventories
Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS) Career Assessment Inventory (CAI) Career Occupational Preference Survey (COPS) Career Quest Harrington-O’Shea Career Decision-Making System (CDMS)

Common Interest Inventories, continued
Interest Determination, Exploration, and Assessment System (IDEAS) Interest Explorer Jackson Vocational Interest Survey (JVIS) Kuder Career Search with Person Match O*Net Interest Profiler

Common Interest Inventories, continued
Self-Directed Search (SDS) Strong Interest Inventory (SII) Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT) Vocational Interest Inventory

Common Instruments to Measure Skills and Abilities
SkillScan WorkKeys Passion Revealer Career Planning Survey O*Net Ability Profiler

Other Inventories Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) - measures personality type O*Net Work Importance Profiler - measures the importance of six work values Super’s Work Values Inventory - measures the importance of 12 work values

Steps of the Assessment Process
Prepare students/clients for assessment Administer instrument(s) properly Interpret instrument(s) properly Follow through to assist students/clients to use results for action planning

Ways to Administer and Interpret Assessment
Print form - manual or optical scoring; counselor interpretation Computer (standalone or networked) - administration and scoring; counselor or computer interpretation Internet - administration, scoring, and interpretation

Advantages of Internet Delivery
Can be taken from anywhere 24/7 Immediate scoring and feedback Standard interpretation, though customized Capability to share report with others electronically

No-Fee Assessment Websites
University of Waterloo Career Services - CareerKey - University of Missouri Career Center - (Select Career Interests Game) Motivational Assessment of Personal Potential -

For-Fee Assessment Websites
Kuder Career Planning System - Self-Directed Search -

Types of Reports Raw scores - provide a tally of responses in a specific category; examinee cannot compare personal scores with those of others Percentile scores - compare the scores of one person with those of a selected norm group

Steps in Selection of Instruments
Determine purpose of assessment. Consider characteristics of those to be assessed. Determine if norm group for instrument includes characteristics of persons to be tested. Investigate the reliability and validity of the instrument.

Steps in Selection of Instruments
Read critical reviews and talk to other professionals. Acquire a sample copy, take it, and read publisher’s materials. Administer instrument to a few individuals and practice interpretation. Determine cost and options for administration and scoring.

Career Information and Resources
Chapter 6

Relationship Between Data and Decision Making
Having reliable data is essential to career decision making. Data may be acquired from print sources, computer-assisted career guidance systems, websites, and/or people. The counselor’s role is to assist clients/students to turn data into information.

Barriers and Decision Styles
Clients/students may have difficulty dealing with data because of physical, mental, or emotional deficits. because of their usual decision-making style. Planful . Compliant Agonizing . Delaying Impulsive . Fatalistic Intuitive . Paralytic

Client Roles Complete the data-gathering homework given by counselors.
Apply data collected to personal career choices, aided by the counselor. Assume responsibility for their own decision making.

Counselor Roles Select sources for data that are of high quality.
Make sources of data known to clients and assist them to know how to use them. Assist clients to make meaningful use of data.

Types of Data Needed by Clients
Occupational descriptions Descriptions of schools Descriptions of programs of study Descriptions of military occupations Descriptions of apprenticeships/internships Listing of jobs Descriptions of financial aid

Ways to Organize Occupations
Holland’s system (R, I, A, S, E, C) ACT’s World-of-Work Map clusters and job families Guide to Occupational Exploration clusters O*Net system clusters U.S. Department of Education clusters

Physical Career Center
Centrally located User-friendly Equipped with computers and Internet connections Equipped with video display devices Staffed with trained persons Organized by material type, content, career planning step, or life role

Virtual Career Center May include assessment linkages to websites that provide data resources cybercounseling assistance

Using Technology to Support Career Counseling and Planning
Chapter 7

Definition of Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System
A group of activities, delivered by computer, designed to assist with one or more steps of the career planning process

Early Systems s Super (with IBM) - Education and Career Exploration System (ECES) Tiedeman (Harvard) - Information System for Vocational Decisions (ISVD) Katz (ETS) - System for Interactive Guidance Information (SIGI)

Early Systems s Impelleteri (Penn State) - Computer Occupational Information System (COIS) Harris (Willowbrook High School) - Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS)

Characteristics of Early Systems
Offered a prescribed sequence of activities Based on career development theory Stored an ongoing user record Taught a decision-making process Supported by external funding Operated on large mainframe computers

Career Information Systems - 1970s
McKinlay (Univ. of Oregon) developed the Career Information System (CIS). System focused on quality databases and search strategies. Occupational and educational information was customized by state. A federal agency, NOICC, encouraged development through funding.

Best Computer Capabilities
Administering and interpreting assessment Searching large databases Linking (crosswalking) files Providing standard service to all users Monitoring the progress of the user Delivering instruction Linking internal resources to others on web

Reasons for Combining Computer and Counselor
Students/clients mask other problems under the rubric of career concerns. Some individuals do not profit from use of technology because of learning or personality style. Research indicates that the most effective intervention is a combination of technology and counselor support.

Counselor Responsibilities
Determine readiness of the client to use a computer system effectively Expand on the interpretation of assessment Assist individuals to identify values that guide decision making Provide motivation and emotional support Suggest creative alternatives

Advantages of Internet Delivery of Career Information and Interventions
Provides access from many places, 24/7. Can serve very large and dispersed audience. Databases can be updated frequently from one central source. Linkages to other websites can be incorporated. Counselor support can be provided online.

Disadvantages of Internet Career Planning Services
Access and operation may be slow. Use of audio and video may not be feasible because of bandwidth and other technical concerns. The Internet is not a secure environment.

Types of Computer-Assisted Systems
Assessment - sole purpose of administering and interpreting assessment instrument(s) Career information system - includes several databases and search strategies through them Career planning system - in addition to above, provides assessment and a career planning process and stores a user record

Selection of a Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System
Theoretical base, if any Use of assessment (online or entering scores) Quality and comprehensiveness of databases Ease of searches Comprehensiveness of system content

Selection of a Computer-Based Career Guidance System, continued
User friendliness and appeal Multimedia capabilities Linkage to websites Quality and service of vendor

Counselor Competencies Needed
Detailed knowledge of the system or site Capability to diagnose the user’s needs and capability to profit from use of technology Capability to motivate user to invest time Capability to assist user to turn data into information Capability to move user beyond information to an action plan

Counselor-Computer Models
One-to-one counseling + computer-based system or website(s) Group guidance + computer-based system or website(s) Group counseling + computer-based system or website(s) Cybercounseling + use of assigned websites

Issues Related to Cybercounseling
Environment - lack of face-to-face contact Problems - need to discern which can be dealt with in this mode Clients - need to discern who can profit from service in this mode

Issues Related to Cybercounseling, continued
Security - need to protect confidentiality Counselor training - need to identify competencies and train for them Supportive services - need to discern when to refer

Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques for the 21st Century
Chapter 8

Career development interventions provide the historical foundation for the counseling profession (Dorn). The counseling field emerged from three distinct movements (Herr & Cramer): vocational/career guidance psychological measurement personality development

Career Interventions, continued
We know relatively little about the career counseling process (Niles & Anderson). Career counselors rarely study how career counseling actually works.

What Do We Know? There is a positive relationship between counselor confidence in establishing a therapeutic relationship and client confidence in coping with career transitions. Career counseling clients devote considerable attention to noncareer concerns in sessions.

What We Know Career counselors tend to give information and set limits more frequently during career counseling than during general counseling. Career counseling participants identify aspects of self-exploration, support, and educating as the most important and helpful career counseling interventions.

What We Know There seems to be a close relationship between the processes of psychotherapy and career counseling. Developing an effective working alliance is critical to positive outcomes in career counseling.

Expanding the Limited View of Career Counseling
Students often conclude that career counseling is a sequence of interventions that resembles the following: Step 1: Client presents for career counseling. Step 2: Counselor gathers client information and administers a test battery. Step 3: Counselor interprets tests and identifies a few appropriate occupational options for the client.

Characteristics of This Approach
Counselor is in charge of the process. Counselor is directive and authoritative. Clients are passive recipients of a predetermined test battery. Career counseling becomes something that is done to clients rather than something the counselor and client participate in collaboratively.

Career Counseling and Mental Health Counseling (Niles & Pate)
Given the relationship between work and mental health, it is perplexing that there has been an artificial distinction between career counseling and mental health counseling. Career counseling and personal counseling are often referred to as if they were completely separate entities. In fact, there are few things more personal than a career choice.

Career Counseling in the 21st Century (CACREP)
Career counseling is both a counseling specialty and a core element of the general practice of counseling.

Crites’ View The need for career counseling is greater than the need for psychotherapy. Career counseling can be therapeutic. should follow psychotherapy. is more effective than psychotherapy. is more difficult than psychotherapy.

Definition of Career Counseling (Brown and Brooks)
Career counseling is an interpersonal process designed to assist individuals with career development problems.

Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century
Career counselors must respond to global unemployment corporate downsizing jobless economy global competition of small companies via information highway workerless factories

Designing Career Counseling Strategies for the 21st Century, continued
redefinition of social contract between employers and employees increase in the number of companies offering daycare and parental leave increase in the number of families with dual incomes increase in the number of people working from home

Requirements of Today’s Workplace
Using computer technology Engaging in lifelong learning Interacting effectively with diverse co-workers Tolerating ambiguity in job security Being vigilant about maintaining a high level of self and occupational awareness to maintain marketability

Characteristics of Career Development Interventions That Foster Self-Affirmation
Provide counseling-based career assistance Provide support to their clients Attend to their clients’ life structure issues Empower clients to clarify their self-concepts and construct their own lives Exhibit understanding that every counseling relationship is cross-cultural

Classifying Forms of Client Resistance
Response quantity resistance Response content resistance Response style resistance Logistic management resistance

Types of Support Emotional support Informational support
Assessment support

Skills for Working with Resistant Clients
Using presuppositions Using embedded questions and directives Correcting transformational errors Labeling and reframing Recognizing and dealing with resistance Identifying irrational beliefs Identifying distorted thinking Using reflective judgment stages Focusing on excuses

Savickas’ Career Style Assessment
Identify life themes (early experiences, role models, books, movies, etc.). Turn life themes into career goals.

Types of Clients Who Benefit from Subjective Interventions
Indecisive clients “Difficult cases” or clients who have received but not profited from counseling Mid-career changers Culturally diverse clients

Strengths of Subjective Assessments
Help clients understand themselves at a deep level Help clients consider the relevance of their life experiences to their career development Help clients attach a sense of purpose to their activities Are inexpensive to use Actively engage clients in the counseling process Results are clearly connected to client responses

Strengths of Objective Assessments
Allow client to make comparisons with others Are outcome-oriented Do not require as much counselor time as subjective assessments Provide a useful starting point for subsequent consideration of career options

A Framework for Career Counseling
Getting started Helping clients deal with change Helping clients engage in self-assessment activities Helping clients learn more about the world of work Helping clients expand or narrow choices Helping clients make plans

Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Gysbers, Heppner, & Johnston)
Opening phase Phase of information-gathering Working phase Final phase

Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey)
Beginning or Initial Phase establish effective relationship begin to gather information about the client define preliminary goals for counseling Middle or Working Phase explore concerns and goals in depth develop and implement a specific plan of action

Ending or Termination Phase
Phases of the Career Counseling Process (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey), continued Ending or Termination Phase Connect the work done in the beginning and middle phases by assessing client’s current status Relate current status to client’s goals for counseling

Premature Closure in Career Counseling (Brown & Brooks)
Clients believe they have achieved their goal. The career counseling experience does not meet the client’s expectations. Clients fear what might be uncovered in career counseling. Clients lack commitment to counseling.

Questions to Ask About Termination
Did I review the content of what happened in counseling? review the process of what happened in counseling? reemphasize the client’s strengths that were evident in counseling? evaluate what went well and what went poorly?

Questions to Ask About Termination, continued
Did I explore things unsaid in counseling? discuss feelings related to the ending of the counseling relationship? provide clear and direct structure for the client’s next steps?

Career Counseling Groups
Group counseling offers a mode of service delivery that can be used instead of, or in addition to, individual counseling. Hansen and Cramer describe group counseling as an intervention for 5-15 members, with 5-8 members viewed as optimal.

Career Counseling Groups, continued
Structured career counseling groups address a specific issue that is a common concern. Structured career counseling groups typically meet for 3-7 sessions. Less structured career counseling groups focus on the intrapersonal and interpersonal concerns that clients have about career development.

Career Counseling Groups, continued
Less structured career counseling groups tend to be more affective-oriented than structured groups. Less structured groups meet over a longer period of time than structured groups.

Stages in Group Career Counseling (Pyle)
Opening stage Investigation stage Working stage Decision/Operational stage

Why Use Career Groups? (Kivlighan)
Members learn new information about themselves and others. Members receive social and emotional support from other group members. Members learn from peers who are in similar situations. Members can share resources and ideas.

Criteria for Successful Groups
Members are in open communication with each other. share a common goal. set norms that direct and guide their activities. develop a set of roles to play within the group. develop a network of interpersonal attraction. work toward satisfaction of individual needs.

Designing and Implementing Career Development Programs and Services
Chapter 9

Reasons for Program Planning
Not possible to provide career planning services to all students on one-to-one basis; other approaches are needed. Using a systematic development process improves the quality.

Counselor Roles in Program Planning
Advocacy - convincing other of the importance of career planning services Coordination - working closely with other stakeholders: department heads, teachers, employers, etc. Participation - helping to deliver services Design and development - designing services by following the program planning process

Step 1: Define the target population.
Determine whom your program will serve. Identify their characteristics -- such as gender, racial-ethnic mix, socioeconomic class, reading level.

Step 2: Determine the needs of the target population.
Look at data that may already exist. Use a questionnaire or focus groups. Use knowledgeable consultants who can identify typical developmental needs. Review the needs of the environment.

Step 3: Write measurable objectives.
An objective is a clear statement of a desired outcome, often including how to determine whether the outcome is achieved. Writing objectives forces counselors to specify what they want to accomplish. lays the basis for content and evaluation.

Format for Writing Objectives
By the end of this (curriculum, workshop, unit), participants will be able to ( ). Remember that each of these endings must be measurable.

Step 4: Determine how to deliver the services.
Offer special career planning courses or units within existing curriculum Offer workshops Use career planning software Develop or use websites Provide self-help materials

Step 5: Determine the content of the program.
Content flows from the objectives -- since it is the content that will produce the desired outcomes. Break content into units, then determine time needed whether curriculum or other resources can be acquired, or need to be developed

Step 6: Determine the cost of the program.
Staff time Software, if any Equipment Materials Duplication costs Facilities Etc.

Step 7: Begin to promote the services.
Consider using an advisory group that can help with promotion. Communicate clearly and often to supervisors so that there will be adequate administrative support. Promote to those who will receive the services and potentially their parents. Consider starting with a pilot test.

Step 8: Deliver the full-blown program.
This step will be easy if the first seven steps have been completed.

Step 9: Evaluate the program.
Reasons to evaluate Did program produce the outcomes stated in the objectives? How can the program be improved the next time it is delivered? What information should be provided to supervisors and other stakeholders?

Methods of Evaluation Questionnaire Exit interview
Pre-post questionnaire or test Follow-up study

Step 10: Revise the program.
No program is ever perfect at first delivery. Be sure to gather information from others involved in the program soon after its completion. Make notes about changes you want to make next time. Revise the program at next delivery.

Career Development Interventions in the Elementary Schools
Chapter 10

Overview of Career Development Interventions in Schools
The National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) identify career development as an essential element in effective school counseling programs. Career education programs are the primary method used for providing career development assistance to students.

National Standards for School Counseling Programs (Career Development Domain)
Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions. Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction. Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training, and the world of work.

Criticisms of Career Education
Takes time away from core academic subjects Pressures students to pursue work immediately after high school rather than postsecondary education Topic not appropriate at elementary and secondary levels Programs not systematic and coordinated

Five-Stage Planning Model
Stage 1: Develop a program rationale and philosophy. Stage 2: State program goals and behavioral objectives. Stage 3: Select program processes. Stage 4: Develop an evaluation design. Stage 5: Identify program milestones.

How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention
Involve knowledgeable professionals, parents, and representatives from the community in all phases of planning. Use developmentally appropriate interventions. Communicate program goals and objectives clearly to all stakeholders.

How to Develop a Systematic Career Intervention, continued
Assure that the program is based on student needs. Evaluate outcomes to determine the degree to which program goals and objectives were achieved. Assure the competence of those involved in program delivery.

Career Development in the Elementary School
Careers unfold and develop throughout the life span. For children and adolescents, school and leisure activities are their work.

Career Development Before Elementary School - Erikson
Children move through the first two of Erikson’s eight stages prior to entering elementary school. Those who coped successfully with these stages have developed trust and autonomy. When students do not develop trust and autonomy, they experience consequences of mistrust, doubt, and shame.

Developmental Tasks of Infancy and Early Childhood - Havighurst
From ages 0-5 children learn to walk eat solid food talk control elimination of body wastes identify sex differences and behave with modesty relate emotionally to family members prepare to read identify the difference between right and wrong

Career Development During Elementary School (Erikson)
During elementary school years, students need to develop initiative (ages 4-6) and industry (ages 6-12). When these tasks are accomplished, they use curiosity to gather information about themselves and the world. These behaviors result in personal effectiveness that is rewarded by positive outcomes.

Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst)
Develop physical skills for participation in games Build positive attitudes toward oneself Develop interpersonal skills Become more tolerant Learn appropriate gender social roles

Middle Childhood Developmental Tasks (Havighurst), continued
Develop academic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics Achieve a greater sense of independence Develop attitudes toward groups and institutions

Goals of Career Interventions at Elementary School Level (Super & Savickas)
Encourage students to participate in activities related to their interests Help children become concerned about the future increase personal control over their lives convince themselves to achieve in school and at work develop competent work habits and attitudes

Career Development Guidelines for Elementary School Students
Self-Knowledge knowledge of the importance of self-concept skills to interact with others awareness of the importance of growth and change

Educational and Occupational Exploration awareness of the benefits of educational achievement awareness of the relationship between work and learning skills to understand and use career information awareness of the importance of personal responsibility and good work habits awareness of how work relates to the needs and functions of society

Career Planning understanding how to make decisions awareness of the interrelationship of life roles awareness of different occupations and changing male-female roles awareness of the career planning process

Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions
Become a constant observer of children. Notice how they approach tasks. Notice the activities they choose. Encourage initiative. Notice the thematic patterns that emerge.

Considerations in Planning Career Development Interventions, continued
Consider the processing of an activity as important as the activity itself. Focus feedback on the specifics of a child’s efforts to develop a sense of industry rather than inferiority. Provide opportunities for children to express their beliefs about themselves in relation to various occupations.

Parental Involvement Parents have substantial influence over the career development of their children. They provide greatest amount of direct and indirect exposure to work. Their influence is most effective when it is planned, intentional, and goal-oriented. They, however, possess minimal knowledge of career development theory and how environmental factors affect development.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr & Kramer)
Encourage children to analyze self-characteristics (interests, capacities, values) Communicate work requirements to children. Discuss the importance of work values in work behavior. Explain the relationship among work, pay, and the economic condition of the family.

Ways in Which Parents Can Assist Children (Herr & Kramer)
Connect children with informational resources (workers, books, films). Be careful to avoid stereotyping occupational alternatives and workers. Provide children with opportunities for work in the home and community. Provide children with opportunities to learn and practice decision-making skills.

Career Development Interventions in Middle and High Schools
Chapter 11

Developmental Tasks of Middle/Junior High School
Achieve new and more sophisticated relations with peers Achieve emotional independence from parents and other adults Set vocational goals Prepare for marriage and family life Develop skills for civic competence

Developmental Tasks, continued
Acquire a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior Set realistic goals and make plans for achieving these goals

Goal of Middle/High School Career Guidance (Super & Savickas, 1996)
To help students cope successfully with the tasks of crystallizing and specifying occupational preferences

ASCA National Standards
Acquire skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions Employ strategies to achieve future success and satisfaction Understand the relationship between personal qualities, education and training, and the world of work

Career Development Guidelines for Middle/High School Students
Self-Knowledge Knowledge of the influence of a positive self-concept Skills to interact with others Knowledge of the importance of growth and change

Educational and Occupational Exploration Knowledge of the benefits of educational achievement to career opportunities Understanding of the relationship between work and learning Skills to locate, understand, and use career information Knowledge of skills necessary to seek and obtain jobs Understanding of how work relates to needs and functions of the economy and society

Career Planning Skills to make decisions Knowledge of the interrelationships of life roles Knowledge of different occupations and changing male-female roles Understanding of the process of career planning

Career Planning Considerations (Herr & Cramer, 1996)
Since junior high is a transition from the structured elementary to the less structured high school environment, students need an opportunity to explore their personal characteristics and educational options. Because students have a wide range of career maturity, interests, values, and abilities, a great variety of intervention methods is needed.

Career Planning Considerations, continued (Herr & Cramer, 1996)
Although junior high students are capable of verbal and abstract behavior, exploration is enhanced with concrete, hands-on direct experiences. Search for identity is a fundamental part of the junior high experience. Therefore, career guidance must encourage students to explore feelings, needs, and uncertainties.

Career Planning Interventions
Assessment Learning an organizational system Exploring and learning about different clusters of occupations Job shadowing Portfolio development

United States Office of Education (USOE) Occupational Clusters
Business & Office Marketing & Distribution Communications & Media Construction Manufacturing Transportation Agribusiness & Natural Resources Marine Science Environment Public Services Health Recreation & Hospitality Personal Services Fine Arts & Humanities Consumer & Homemaking Education

Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity
The identity-diffused person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration and has not made a personal commitment to an occupation -- or a set of goals, values, and beliefs. The foreclosed person has not yet experienced an identity crisis or exploration but has committed to an occupation and a set of goals, values, and beliefs.

Marcia’s Taxonomy of Adolescent Identity, continued
The moratorium person is engaged in an active struggle to clarify personally meaningful values, goals, and beliefs. The identity-achieved person has sorted through the process of identity clarification and resolved these issues in a personally meaningful way.

Career Development Guidelines for High School Students
Self-Knowledge Understanding the influences of a positive self-concept Skills to interact positively with others Understanding the impact of growth and development

Educational and Occupational Exploration Understanding the relationship between educational achievement and career planning Understanding the need for positive attitudes toward work and learning Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information Skills to prepare to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs Understanding how societal needs and functions influence the nature and structure of work

Career Planning Skills to make decisions Understanding the interrelationship of life roles Understanding the continuous changes in male-female roles Skills in career planning

Potential Issues Confronting High School Students (Herr & Cramer, 1996)
Need to develop and implement a career plan Need to catch up on career development tasks because past interventions have not been systematic Need to combat internal and environmental pressure that surrounds career decisions Need to examine advantages and disadvantages of various post-secondary school options

Career Interventions in High School
Instruction on tasks related to career maturity (career choice readiness) Assessment Learning how the world of work is organized Occupational research Consideration of the importance of work in life Values clarification Parent involvement

Career Development Interventions in Higher Education
Chapter 12

Career Needs of Students in Higher Education
Today’s students are diverse in background, characteristics, developmental levels, and career development needs. Approximately 6 million adults (over the age of 25) attend college each year. Approximately 500,000 international students were enrolled in higher education in 2001.

Career Needs of Students in Higher Education, continued
More than 130,000 students with learning disabilities are currently attending college. Women now constitute the majority (57.5%) of students enrolled in higher education. Ethnic minorities made up 22.5% of students in higher education in 1999.

Career Needs of Students in Higher Education, continued
Career development needs of lesbian, gay, and bisexual students have long been ignored in higher education. This increased heterogeneity suggests that career development interventions in higher education must be comprehensive and systematic.

The Evolution of Career Development Interventions
Professor/advocate Job placement Employment agencies Placement offices Diverse services (no single type of counseling center or placement center)

Five Major Approaches for Delivering Career Services
Macrocenter Counseling orientation General-level service Career planning and placement Minimal service

Why College Students Seek Career Assistance
Learn more about themselves Identify career goals Become more certain of their career plans Explore career options Do educational planning Learn job search skills

Career Development Competencies in Adulthood
Self-Knowledge Skills to maintain a positive self-concept Skills to maintain effective behaviors Ability to understand developmental changes and transitions

Educational and Occupational Exploration Skills to enter and participate in education and training Skills to participate in work and lifelong learning Skills to locate, evaluate, and interpret career information Skills to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs Ability to understand how the needs and functions of society influence the nature and structure of work

Career Planning Skills to make decisions Ability to understand the impact of work on individual and family life Ability to understand the continuing changes in male-female roles Skills required to make career transitions

Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education
Help students learn to identify and transfer career interests to a plan of action Help students relate interests and goals to opportunities Help students relate their career plans to life goals and opportunities Help students learn how to evaluate their progress toward career goals through academic preparation

Career Interventions in Higher Education (Crites’ Model)
Explore a variety of options. Crystallize a narrow range of specific options. Make a commitment to a choice and specify college major. Implement the choice of major.

Powell and Kirts Model Proposes a systems approach to career services in higher education Starts by providing an overview of services to new students Continues by providing self-assessment Then focuses on exposure as students engage actively in career exploration Finally provides training in job search skills

The Florida State Model
A curricular career information service (CCIS) model with five modules, as follows: Introduction to the service Orientation to the decision-making process Self-assessment Career information Matching of majors and jobs

Career Services Courses, workshops, and seminars -- structured group experiences on topics such as career decision making, career planning, and job search skills Group counseling activities for students dealing with career indecision, career indecisiveness, and job search anxiety Individual career counseling Placement programs

Components of Comprehensive Career Services (Hale)
Structured, university-wide program of career education One-stop center that offers career counseling, career planning, and placement Specially trained and selected academic advisers representing many academic areas Central full-time administrator Commission on academic advising and career services

Goals of Career Interventions in Higher Education (Herr & Kramer)
Provide assistance in the selection of a major Provide self-assessment and self-analysis Assist students to understand the world of work Assist students to learn decision-making skills Provide assistance with unique needs of sub-populations Provide assistance with access to jobs

Career Development Goals in Higher Education (Griff)
Increase career and self-awareness Develop decision-making skills Acquire knowledge of current and emerging occupational options Develop job search skills Crystallize career goals Participate in academic planning

Council for the Advancement of Standards (CAS) Guidelines
Essential components of career services Leadership Organization and management Human resources Financial resources Facilities, technology, and equipment Acceptance of legal responsibilities

CAS Standards, continued
Equal opportunity, access, and affirmative action Campus and community relations Diversity Ethics Assessment and evaluation

Advantages of Centralized Services
More likely to have a critical mass of professional staff Efficiencies and economies of scale in use of facilities and support staff Vibrant, challenging environment because of heterogeneity of student population

Disadvantages of Centralized Services
May be viewed by students as less personal due to size May be located farther away from places where students spend most of their time

Ten Imperatives for Career Services (Rayman, 1999)
1: Acknowledge lifelong nature of career development and challenge students to take responsibility for their own career destiny 2: Accept and embrace technology as an ally in service delivery 3: Continue to refine and strengthen professional identity 4: Acknowledge and accept that individual career counseling is at the core of our work

5: Forge relationships with other professionals and parents to achieve a “multiplier effect” 6: Redouble efforts to meet needs of an increasingly diverse student body 7: Maintain focus on quality career services while also filling relationship role with corporate America

8: Acknowledge that on-campus recruiting is a thing of the past and develop new approaches 9: Resolve the nature of the university’s role with alumni, eliciting support rather than providing services to them 10: Advocate effectively for resources to maintain and increase services and use existing resources efficiently

Career Development Interventions in Community Settings
Chapter 13

Introduction Community-based counseling has had a long struggle for recognition, though Parsons’ Bureau in Boston was community-based. School counseling was the first specialty to be recognized -- in the National Defense Education Act of 1958.

Introduction The American Personnel and Guidance Association (now the American Counseling Association) was formed in 1952 by four specialties, not including community-based. ACA currently has 17 divisions, but none that specifically represents community-based counselors.

Qualifications of Professional Counselors
Counselor education programs may be approved by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Programs (CACREP), which has high standards. Individuals may be certified by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC). In addition, counselors may hold state licensure, required in 49 states.

Definition Community counseling is the application of counseling principles and practices in agency, organization, or individual practice settings that are located in and interact with the surrounding community.

Competencies All professional counselors are trained in the same 12 basic competencies. Community counseling requires skill in four additional competencies -- coordination, consultation, advocacy, and case management.

Coordination This is a process of bringing together the needs of a client and resources of the community. Schlossberg’s 4-step model provides a helpful framework for identifying client strengths and barriers.

Coordination Counselors need to identify community resources available and know them well. Working with a client is a 5-step process: Identify client needs. Match client needs and community resources. Introduce client to the resources. Refer the client. Follow through with the client.

Consultation Consultation is the work of one professional with another in an attempt to find ways to reach compromise that will address the needs of a third party (the client).

Advocacy Advocacy is the act of exerting pressure on some aspect of the community in order to improve the resources available to clients.

Case Management Its goal is to assure that a client receives the sequence of services needed in a timely and coordinated way. Its instrument is the case plan. Its tasks include coordinating, sequencing, communicating, and following through.

Community Counseling and Other Specialties
Similarities Practice draws on the same base of counseling theory. Counselors deal with similar client problems. Differences Community counselors deal with adults. Options are limited to those in community. Counselor may spend equal time with client and resources. Work setting is the community.

Typical Work Settings Private practice
The World Wide Web (cybercounseling) Mental health centers Substance abuse centers Rehabilitation settings Corrections and probations Job Service offices and one-stop centers Corporations and other organizations

Ethical Issues in Career Development Interventions
Chapter 14

Classifying Practitioner Behavior
Ethical and Legal Ethical and Illegal Unethical and Legal Unethical and Illegal

Ethical “Rules of Thumb”
Dual relationships with the potential to exploit client trust and vulnerability are unethical. Consult with professional colleagues who understand career interventions when unsure about how to resolve a dilemma. Be aware of client’s values and those imbedded in career intervention models.

Ethical Dilemmas vs. Moral Temptations
Kidder (1995) contends that an ethical dilemma occurs only in instances when there are competing “rights” or there is a struggle to determine the “least bad” course of action.

Using Principles to Resolve Ethical Decisions
Van Hoose (1986) recommended that counselors use ACA’s five principles to guide their ethical practice: Autonomy Nonmaleficence Beneficence Justice Fidelity (Herlify & Corey, 1996, p. 4-5)

Additional Principles
Beauchamp and Childress (1995) identified additional relevant principles to guide professional-client relationships: Veracity: Tell the truth and do not lie or deceive others. Privacy: Allow individuals to limit access to information about themselves. Confidentiality: Allow individuals to control access to information they have shared.

Relevant Ethical Codes for Career Practitioners
American Counseling Association (ACA) National Career Development Association (NCDA) American Psychological Association (APA) International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance (IAEVG) National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC)

Strategies for Minimizing Insensitivity to Clients’ Values
Become informed about variety of values held in society. Be aware of your own values. Present value options to clients in an unbiased manner. Be committed to client’s freedom of choice.

Strategies for Minimizing Insensitivity, continued
Respect clients with values that differ from your own. Consult with others when necessary. Consider referring clients to another counselor when substantial moral, religious or political value differences exist.

Special Ethical Challenges
Are all individual career interventions counseling? Should those without traditional training and credentials provide career services? How should the Internet be used in career development interventions?

Reasons for Using the Internet in Career Service Delivery (current NCDA guidelines)
To deliver occupational information To provide online searches of occupational databases for the purpose of identifying occupational options To deliver interactive career counseling and career planning services To provide online job searches

Six Sections of NCDA Ethical Standards
Section A - General Section B - The Counseling Relationship Section C - Measurement and Evaluation Section D - Research and Publication Section E - Consulting Section F - Private Practice

Ethical Standards and Ethical Practice for Career Counselors
Offer only services they are competent to offer. Respect and value individual differences among clients and potential clients. Treat information received from and about clients as owned by the client and held in trust by the counselor.

Ethical Standards, continued
Do not engage in any professional relationship in which the counselor’s objectivity and ability to work for client’s welfare might be impaired. Assume professional responsibility for clients and, if unable to assist, help the client obtain alternative services.

Ethical Standards, continued
Recognize they have obligations to other members of the profession and to society to act in responsible ways and to consider the effects of their behavior on others.

Evaluation of Career Planning Services
Chapter 15

Why Evaluation Is Important
Determine if participants are reaching the predetermined objectives Improve services Provide accountability Determine whether outcomes are worth expenditures

Types of Evaluation Formative - purpose is to improve an ongoing program Summative - purpose is to determine whether to retain a program

Steps in Planning Evaluation
Decide whether to do formative, summative, or both Identify the specified attitudes or behaviors to be evaluated Identify the sources of the evaluation data Determine how and when to collect data Determine how the data will be analyzed

Stakeholders A stakeholder is any person or entity who is affected by a program of services. Stakeholders must be considered when planning evaluation. Different stakeholders may desire different kinds of feedback (evaluative data).

Types of Data Qualitative - measures the perceived value of the services and the extent to which measurable objectives have been reached - in ways other than numbers Quantitative - collects and reports numbers

Benchmarks for Evaluation
Outcomes must be compared to a desired standard, such as the following: Goals of individual clients (one-to-one counseling) Measurable objectives National Career Development Guidelines State or local guidelines Theory

Methods of Evaluation Questionnaires Interviews Formal instruments
Follow-up studies

Using the Results of Evaluation
To determine if services met the needs of the participants To improve the services To provide feedback to stakeholders To determine if outcomes were worth the expenditures

Roadblocks to Evaluation
Staff has fear of negative results and possible consequences. Guidance services are often non-systematic, not lending themselves to evaluation. Some counselors believe that their work cannot be quantified and evaluated. Time is always insufficient, so evaluation is given low priority.

Introduction to Career Development Interventions

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