1. Miikka Pyykkönen, University of Jyväskylä, Cultural Policy, 23.11.2016
Multiculturalism, Immigration, Minorities and Citizenship (MCPS065) STUDYING MULTICULTURALISM - key concepts, theories and empirical observations
Miikka Pyykkönen, University of Jyväskylä, Cultural Policy,

2. Content of the course
Wed Miikka Pyykkönen: Studying multiculturalism – concepts, theories and empirical observations hours, MaD 207.
Thu Miikka Pyykkönen: Cultural policy and cultural diversity h, Ruu C 101 Lucina.
Fri Workshop sessions I-IV h, F 205.
Mon Workshop sessions V & Learning café 9-12 h, MaD 207.

3. Way(s) of performance Attendance (minimum 14/17 hours).
3-4 people group presentation on one of the workshop themes (length ca. 60 minutes).
Active participation in the debate with the group presenters after their presentation. Every student will read all the texts presented and prepare 1-2 questions for the presenters.
Participation in learning cafés.
A) 5 or 10 pages individual essay/seminar paper as a completion work of the course. This should base on either the topic of the group presentation or on some other topic closely related to the ones of the course. OR B) 3 or 6 pages learning café report

4. Something to keep in mind when reading the texts and preparing the presentations:
Clarify writer’s project: main points, concepts, ways of approach arguments, and results.
Text’s relation and contribution to general debates on immigration, minority, multicultural and cultural policy affairs?
How do the two texts relate to each other?
What do you personally benefit from the texts?
Do not be afraid to discuss about the challenges of the texts.
Be critical to the text: what results and arguments of the texts should be questioned and and why, what is outdated, etc.?
Share different parts/themes of the texts between group members.
Try to construct systematic and coherently proceeding group presentation.

5. Basic concepts: CULTURE
Three general conceptualisations: (a) aesthetic, (b) semiotic and (c) anthropological:
Culture = art(s) – narrow signification
Culture = signifying system/semiosis
Culture = way of life (incl. language, belief system, shared ways of thinking and behaviour, institutions, etc.) – broad signification
Established approach in social and many humanistic sciences is a combination of semiotic and anthropological dimensions or of all three.

6. Basic concepts: ETHNICITY
Etymology in Greek word “ethnos”: (a) general term for the group of people, which differs culturally from the “defining group”, or (b) general term for non-civilized groups.
In the times of “anthropological primordialism” it referred to the common biological origin of the group of people.
Interactionist definition of ethnicity (Fredrik Barth): Ethnicity is constructed in interaction between groups, when they distinguish themselves from other groups through their unique cultural features, communal structures and social institutions.
Constructonist / cultural turn”: ethnicity is a discourse and a matter of representations.
Latest turn: the influence of structures, governing practices, materiality and intersectionality.

7. Basic concepts: MULTICULTURAL(ISM)
(a) Multicultural (adjective) and (b) multiculturalism (noun)
“Social fact” and/or state of affairs.
b1) Ideas, policies and programs for conducting problems and issues appearing in the multicultural societies (integration policy).
b2) Actual practices and technologies of governance (education).
b3) Ideological and normative point of departure, a societal ideal: multiculturalism/pluralism as a social/political goal
Different ways of implementing multiculturalism with different political ideas, ideologies and goals exist.

8. Ethnic and cultural groups of multiculturalism research
Immigrants.
“Old” or “national” minorities (The Roma people).
Indigenous peoples (The Sami, Maoris, Native Americans).
Linguistic minorities (Swedish speaking Finns).
Regional minorities (The Basques).
Majority / dominant culture.

9. The applied conceptualisation of multiculturalism
General conceptualization of the multiculturalism in the European context
”In a multicultural society we should distinguish between the public domain in which there is a single culture based upon the notion of equality between individuals, and the private domain, which permits diversity between groups”.
John Rex: ”The Concept of a Multicultural Society” (1986)

10. European models of multiculturalism
Segregation; immigration is considered as temporary, citizenship hard to get, and public support for the immigrant groups practically non-existent; used in West-Germany/Germany from 1970s to the end of 1990s (no political rights).
Assimilation; no formal recognition for ethno-cultural minorities, individual rights over group rights, but easy access to the country and citizenship; still part of official politics/policy in France.
“Multiculti”; minority cultures accepted and supported, cultural group rights equally important as individual citizen rights and no strong integration or assimilation expectations; used in Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands until mid-2000s.
Integration; foreigners’ involvement in mainstream society is controlled and strongly supported, but with the permission to maintain their own cultural traditions and languages; used in Finland and to some extent in the UK, Germany, Sweden and the Netherlands nowadays.

11. Critique of multiculturalism(s)
Immanent hegemony of the “neutral” mainstream/dominant culture.
Presumption that cultures are unchangeable and non-mixing.
Over-culturalization of ethnic relations.
Over-culturalization of minority and immigrant groups.
Ignorance towards other forms of diversity.
Guilt of disintegration and dysfunctionalities of multicultural policies is placed on minority groups and cultures.

12. Interculturalism
Compensative concept and approach for multiculturalism.
Premise: all societies consist of multiple cultures and even one culture of features from multiple sources.
Critique to policies, which have failed to create inclusion of different cultures in a society, but instead legitimized segregation of communities.
As a policy, it refers to the attempts and arrangements invoking cultural interaction and dialogue between cultural groups and elements.
The goal is to enhance and increase the mixing of cultures and cultural features/elements and, hence, the reciprocal cooperation of people coming from different cultural backgrounds.

13. Basic concepts: Cultural Diversity
Another compensative concept and approach for multiculturalism.
’Cultural diversity’ usually refers to
cultural differences accordingly social, political and economic groupings and categories (incl. sub- and counter-cultures, social movements, gender, class, sexuality, etc.);
diversity of arts, and art styles and genres, tastes, artistic expressions, and arts markets or cultural industries;
different political world views;
ethno-cultural, linguistic and religious differences, and ethnic groups and relations (=multiculturalism).
Typology of cultural diversities by Bhikhu Parekh: a) subcultural, b) perspectival, and c) communal diversity.

14. Critique of multiculturalism(s): ”from outside”
Neo-nationalism and right-wing populism: nostalgia for the culturally homogeneous “good old days”.
Europeanism: acceptance of European diversity (with united values etc.), but exclusion of other diversity – institutionalized (EU) and popular movements (Close the borders, “defence leagues”…).
Cultural racism – traces of old cultural evolutionism; “European cultures are above others” (right-wing populism and far-right).
“Islamophobia”: conspiracy theories and other representations on the expansion of Islam in Europe ( – ” – ).
Exclusion of multiculturalism in the name of other diversity: “keep the narrow-minded Islam out of Europe for securing the equality, free speech and rights of the women/sexual minorities” (from extreme right to moderates and social democrats).

15. Basic concepts: IMMIGRANT/IMMIGRATION
Immigration = moving into a new host country from the country of permanent living
Three phase process:
Crossing the border/coming to a country
Settlement
Citizenship/nationality
Immigrant = person who moves to a particular country with the purpose to live there permanently
The general term ‘immigrant’ includes labour and marriage migrants, refugees, asylum seekers and remigrants.
Annika Forsander: a) labor based migration , b) family based migration, c) ethnic based migration (remigrants), d) study based migration, e) pensioner migration, f) refugee migration, and g) undocumented migration.

16. IMMIGRATION IN FINLAND
Asylum seekers
Refugees
Quota refugees
Family reunifications
Ingrian Finns
Remigrants
Former citizens
Labor migrants
Immigrants
Marriage migrants

17. Basic concepts: MINORITY
‘Minority’ is both quantitative and qualitative category or definition, which always relates to “majority” and other minorities.
“An ethnic minority can be defined as a group which is numerically inferior to the rest of the population in a society, which is politically non-dominant and which is being reproduced as an ethnic category” (T.H. Eriksen 2002, 121).
“Imagined community” (Anderson).
“Contextual value”; includes both negative and positive aspects for its members.
(Sub)cultural, lingual, social and sexual minorities. Sometimes used also to describe the group of people with physical or mental disabilities.
Minorities within minorities

18. Basic concepts: CULTURAL RIGHTS
Base on The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948).
Cultural rights are fundamental part of the human rights and an expression of and a prerequisite for human dignity (UN, UNESCO et al.).
Premise of the protection of cultural diversity and culturally sustainable development, includes the principle of pluralism.
Concerning ethno-cultural groups the most prominent rights are those to: choose one’s own culture and cultural community; get respect for one’s culture; identify or not to identify with one or more cultures; freely choose one’s language and religion; have adequate resources; participate equally cultural policy decision making; participate the development, maintenance and protection of cultures; be safe from the cultural assimilation.

19. Basic concepts: DIASPORA
Etymology: dia (everywhere) and speiro (disseminate).
In colloquial language diaspora refers to the deportation and dispersion of the Jews from their biblical homeland.
Became common term in immigration studies in 1990’s.
According to William Safran’s definition it means minority groups, which have moved from their original and long term abodes, but which still have strong mental and material connections to these locations.
Recently it has started to signify all peoples who have moved from some area, which is considered as their original.
An analytical concept which directs attention to settlement to a new living environment, the travel and the area of origin in analysing immigrants cultures, integration, politics etc.
1990s: “Postmodernization” and deconstruction of the concept.
2000s: Materialization and organizationalization.

20. Basic concepts: INTEGRATION
Etymology in Latin word ‘integer’; whole, consolidated.
In the history of social sciences it has meant one-sided inclusion of the minorities into the “societal centre”.
Recently: form of acculturation where immigrants are expected to interact with their own cultural group and “majority”.
Indicators of majority integration: work, education and language.
Indicators of minority integration: language, cultural activities and “shows”, ethnic affiliation and organizations.
Public sphere: universal/common values, norms and patterns. Private sphere: diversity of cultures, religions and languages (cf. Rex 1996)

21. Basic concepts: NATIONALISM
Set of practices, ideas, ideologies, institutions, symbols, sentiments and narratives constructing common origin, history, identities and way of life for given territory, state and population.
Nation is an imagined and invented community (Benedict Anderson & Ernst Gellner).
Importance of language.
Brief history of development:
Cultural nationalism, 1770s (Herder).
Political nationalism / nation states, 19th and 20th centuries.
Revival in the1990s and 2000s, “countermovement” to globalization.
Usually, but not necessarily ethno- or race-centric (e.g. US nationalism today).

22. Basic concepts: RACISM
Verbal, symbolic, physical, social etc. mistreatment of a person or a group on the basis of racial characters.
Bases on a belief that humanity is divided into distinct race groups consisting of racial characters and that those groups and characters are unequal.
Often immanent to nationalism.
Biological racism.
Cultural racism.
Discursive and practical production of racial identities = racialization.
Forms: colonial racism, structural racism, open racism, everyday racism, and hidden racism.

23. Other key themes of immigration research
Gender
Religion
Language
Employment
Governance/government
Politics
Civil society
Age / youth

24. Three phases of post war immigration and immigrant policy in Finland
Continuation war related and humanitarian immigration; no specific programmes or legislation on migration (1944- early 1990’s).
Time of the integration policy; focus on the settlement of immigrants and their bi-culturality ( ).
Time of the focused labour migration; integration + selective admission according to the personal appropriateness for the Finnish labour markets (2005- ).

25. ”Traditional minorities” in Finland
Four ethnic minority groups and the Jews, the Swedish speaking Finns and the Carelian speakers.
The Sami (8700 people, three different language groups).
The Roma ( people).
The Tatars (800 people).
The Old Russians ( people).
The Sami and the Roma have been the most visible ethnic groups in the fields of cultural policy: the Sami trying to fight for their rights in land use and representations of their culture, and the Roma in trying to fight against the prejudices and discrimination, and for the resources for cultural heritage work.

26. Minority policy actors in Finland
Affairs of the Sami are seen as a cultural and juridical issue, whereas those of the Roma mainly as a social issue.
Immigration affairs are taken care of by Ministry of Interior (Finnish Immigration Service), Ministry of Employment and Economy, Ministry of Education and Culture, and Ministry of Justice.
Local level: municipal departments of social and health, departments culture and youth, and third sector organisations and parishes.

27. Minority policy actors
UN (incl. ILO, UNESCO, UNHCR, etc.): conventions and declarations.
EU: treaties/conventions, legislation, acts, directives and financing.
National governments/parliaments: legislation.
Ministries: institutions (Migration services), special bodies (e.g. working groups, committees, advisory boards) and funding streams (e.g. integration money, finance for immigrant education).
Foundations (some former institutes etc. of ministries), institutionalized third sector actors (Red Cross), (semi-)autonomous bodies (Sami parliament). See:
Regional administration (coordination and funding).
Municipalities (social and cultural services).
Local associations, parishes and multicultural centres.

28. Immigration in and to Europe
Europe transformed from continent of emigration to continent of immigration in 1950’s.
Reason: The decline of the colonialist system and reconstruction and economic growth of the post war Europe.
Three phases of post war immigration:
Labor migration from Southern Europe, Middle-East and Northern Africa.
Family reunifications of settled labor migrants and beginning of refugee immigration from the formerly colonized countries.
Post cold war migration: increase of asylum seekers, “illegal” migration, internal migration and selection of immigrants according to the needs of European labor markets.
The “top 5” of immigration countries (2011): Luxembourg, Germany, Belgium, Austria and the Netherlands.

29. ”Traditional minorities” in Europe
All European nation states have been constituted on ethnic, cultural and linguistic heterogeneity.
In most parts of the Europe “traditional minorities” are linguistic.
Up till 1970’s policies towards traditional minorities were assimilative: cultural symbols of the minorities and education of minority languages were prohibited.
During the 1980’s and 1990’s a “wave of legislation renewals” took place for securing positions of minority languages, and in many countries minority languages are accepted to be used in public and in education in the areas, where the speakers are numerous.

30. Cultural policy and minority affairs
In this context the concept of cultural policy is broadening due to internationalization of societies, research and work of international organizations; instead of just arts and national heritage, cultural policy concerns the ways of life of peoples, especially when minorities and developing countries are considered.
Multicultural issues have become central part of national and international cultural policies – “from national monoculturalism to regulation of cultural diversity” (Skott-Hansen)
As institutions, works of art and media always represent ethnicities and nations, cultural policy – understood widely – plays very important role in the politics of identity and representation

31. Cultural policy and minority affairs
Saukkonen & Pyykkönen (2008)

32. Reasons for taking diversity into account in different policy spheres?
Reasons within the arts and cultural policy:
Promotion of creativity
Plurality and variety
Reflection principle
Mental and spiritual growth
Reasons related to integration policy:
Promotion of respect of “other cultures”
Promotion of integration to the majority
Preventing isolation
Community empowerment

33. Reasons for taking diversity into account in different policy spheres?
Economic and social policy reasons
Creative economy and innovations
Promotion of employment
Promotion of health
Equality and equity
Prevention of criminality and problematic behaviour

34. The ”3 major post-war phases” of cultural policy and cultural diversity in Finland
Institutionalization and statization, preference of “high-brow”, national identity (1950s until the end of 1960s); monoculturalism – ignoring or rejecting cultural and ethnic diversity.
Cultural participation, cultural democracy, democracy of culture, linkage to the welfare state ideology, recognition of “low-brow”, development of the administration and institutionalization of arts council systems (1970s–mid-80s); first steps to recognize ethno-cultural diversity and the “cultural needs” accordingly.
Marketization/economization, New Public Management (renewal of the arts council/committee systems), mediation, digitalization, strengthening of the policy field, dissemination of the culture and arts to other administrative fields (1990 ->); cultural policy and arts for integration, special support for multicultural arts, ‘cultural diversity’, recognition of differences and their economic potential.

35. Current contexts of paying attention to multiculturalism and cultural diversity in cultural policy
Culture and international trade
Culture and development
Cultural rights
European identity
The plurality of arts
Ethnic and cultural diversity; plurality of cultural heritages

36. Typical themes of the current multicultural cultural policy discourse
Themes repeating in the most current discourses:
egual cultural rights of minorities;
integration, access and reciprocity;
interculturality;
national culture is multicultural, not monoculture;
lack of resources and legislation.
The overall tone is very positive towards the ethnic minorities.
The serious focus on other forms of cultural diversities and the inner diversities of the minority cultures is somewhat lacking.

37. Typical themes of the current multicultural cultural policy discourse
The most remarkable changes if compared to the previous discourses and practices:
Earlier ethnic minorities were dealt with together (except e.g. the Sámi), but now there is more differentiation (except in EU policy) through special committees, projects and strategies, for instance.
The recognition of diversity has increased together with the transformation of the concept of culture from narrow to wider.
However, at the same time the arts policies have become more minority sensitive and vice versa; the traditional core field (i.e. arts) of cultural policy has become integral part of the integration policies.
The necessity of dominant culture integration of the immigrants is gaining more and more weight in the Finnish cultural policy.

38. Arts and multiculturalism
Individual
Community
Society
Arts
a) making
b) experience/consumption
a) Immigrant artists and ”consumer” of culture
a) Arts and culture in immigrant communities and associations
a) Multi- or intercultural institutions, projects etc.
b) The accessibility of cultural services and individual participation
b) The accessibility of cultural services and the collective use of services
b) The accessibility of arts and culture representing diversity of all members of the society

39. The structure of the Finnish administration of ethno-cultural diversity
Ministry of Education and Culture
Ministry of the Interior
Ministry of Employment and the Economy
Educational policy
Cultural, youth and sport policy
ETNO
Centers for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment
Finnish Immigration Service
Education of immigrants and traditional minorities; multiculturalism in education
Funds for youth and sport projects and organizations
Arts Promotion Centre Finland
Residence permits, asylum applications, travel documents, deportation or rejection, citizenship applications
Integration of immigrants
The Sámi Parliament (Ministry of Justice)
Regional and municipal departments, institutions and educational, cultural, sports and youth organizations
Municipalities, associations, parishes and local Employment and Economic Development Offices

40. “Multicultural challenges” for cultural policy – part I
Access of immigrant customers and labor, and participation of immigrant producers and artists.
Recognition and diffusion of the artistic and cultural activities of immigrant organizations.
Recognition of quality of immigrant art(ist)s.
Supporting multicultural integration or building “ethnic enclaves” (cf. the question of quality recognition)?The grant of the Arts Promotion Centre Finland for multicultural art projects

41. “Multicultural challenges” for cultural policy – part II
General challenge for the cultural institutions (museums, libraries, theaters, orchestras etc.) is the concrete access and participation of migrants, especially refugees.
The normal service principle / universalism lives tight in service provision: The idea is to produce everything equally to all and not to practice any kind of ”positive discrimination”. This does not reach ”special groups” with thresholds or problems in participation or access.
This obstacle is not visible in speech or documents – the will is there and the need is recognized – but the practices lag behind.
The own institutions of minorities and public institutions with special foci (e.g. the museums of world culture) can be exceptions.
Public, semi-public or third sector multicultural centers offer special services, but also increase “enclavization”.

42. “Multicultural challenges” for cultural policy – part III
“Refugee crisis”: What role for cultural organizations and institutions in the reception of asylum seekers and in the integration of those with residence permits?
Events and leisure activities for the asylum seekers.
Participatory workshops and exhibitions for the refugee artists.
New public funding channels?
Anti-immigrant/-immigration attitudes: how to tackle them in cultural policy and cultural institutions?
Can arts institutions/organizations increase tolerance among the mass audiences?
Will arts institutions/organizations face influential boycotts etc., if they openly choose to support asylum seekers / multiculturalism?
Organization of events that expand the “sphere of Finnishness” and revise and broaden the understanding of cultural heritage.

43. The questions for the group work:
What can cultural policy do to address the issues of indigenous peoples and improve their cultural, social, political and economic situation?
What are the most urgent practices that public cultural policy could organize for the immigrants / newcomers?
Should there be separate cultural policies for the “old minorities” such as native peoples and new minorities (current immigrants)?
Comparison between Finnish and Mexican case: What are the major differences and similarities?
What kind of comparative research projects could be launched? What should be the main themes that they should focus on?