1. Psychology 2e
Chapter 4
Consciousness

2. Module 9
Sleep and Dreams

3. Learning Objectives
9.1 Describe the various stages of consciousness. 9.2 Distinguish between explicit and implicit processing. 9.3 Understand the circadian rhythm and its relation to sleep. 9.4 Outline theories about the functions of sleep. 9.5 Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle. 9.6 Identify the types of sleep disorders. 9.7 Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.
Slide 2 is list of textbook LO numbers and statements

4. Consciousness Consciousness
Learning Objective 9.1: Describe the various states of consciousness.
Consciousness
A person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment

5. States of Consciousness
Learning Objective 9.1: Describe the various states of consciousness.
Waking Consciousness
State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert
Altered State of Consciousness
State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness

6. Processing
Learning Objective 9.2: Distinguish between explicit and implicit processing.
Explicit Processing – processing that is conscious, in which you are aware of your thought process and are focusing your full attention at the task at hand (effortful processing)
Implicit Processing – processing that happens without conscious awareness, in which you can perform an action before you even become aware of it (automatic processing)

7. Why Do We Need to Sleep? The Biology of Sleep
Learning Objective 9.3: Understand the circadian rhythm and its relation to sleep.
The Biology of Sleep
Sleep is human body’s biological rhythm
Natural cycle of activity that the body must go through
Circadian Rhythms – the sleep-wake cycle
From Latin words “circa” (about) and “diem” (day)
Most people experience sleep at least once in a day
Controlled by the brain through the hypothalamus (the tiny section of the brain that influences the glandular system)

8. How Much Sleep Do We Need?
Learning Objective 9.3: Understand the circadian rhythm and its relation to sleep.
Varies from person to person
Young adults – 7 to 9 hours
Short sleepers – 4 to 5 hours
Long sleepers – more than 9 hours
Older people – 6 hours or less
Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of sleep
Results in irritability and problems with concentration

9. Figure 9.1: Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults

10. Theories of Sleep
Learning Objective 9.4: Outline theories about the functions of sleep.
Adaptive Theory – proposes that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active
Restorative Theory – proposes that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage

11. Types of Sleep Rapid eye movement (R E M) N R E M (non-R E M)
Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.
Rapid eye movement (R E M)
Active type of sleep, dreams takes place
Voluntary muscles are inhibited, less movement of the body
N R E M (non-R E M)
Much deeper, restful type of sleep
Body is free to move around

12. Brainwave Patterns Electroencephalograph (E E G)
Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.
Electroencephalograph (E E G)
Allows scientists to see the brainwave activity as a person passes through various stages of sleep
beta waves
Very small and very fast waves, shows when the person is wide awake and mentally active
alpha waves
Slightly larger and slower waves, shows when the person relaxes and gets drowsy
theta waves
Slower and larger waves, leading to deep sleep
delta waves
Largest and slowest waves, shows when the person is in the deepest stage of sleep

13. Figure 9.2: Brain Activity During Sleep
The EEG reflects brain activity during both waking and sleep. This activity varies according to level of alertness while awake (top two segments) and the stage of sleep. Stage N3 of sleep is characterized by the presence of delta activity, which is much slower and accounts for the larger, slower waves on these graphs. REM has activity that resembles alert wakefulness but has relatively no muscle activity except rapid eye movement. This REM activity is called “paradoxical sleep.”

14. Stages of Sleep (1 of 2) N1 (R&K Stage 1): Light Sleep
Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.
N1 (R&K Stage 1): Light Sleep
Non-REM
The person may experience:
hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events
hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks
N2 (R&K Stage 2): Sleep Spindles
Sleep spindles: brief bursts of activity lasting only a second or two
Heart rate slows, breathing is shallow and irregular

15. Stages of Sleep (2 of 2) N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): Delta Waves Roll In
Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.
N3 (R&K Stages 3 and 4): Delta Waves Roll In
Deepest stage of sleep (slow wave sleep)
Body at lowest level of functioning
Growth hormones reach their peak
R (R&K REM)
The person goes back to N2, body temperature increases, eyes move rapidly, heart beats faster, beta waves set in
90% of more vivid and detailed dreams occur

16. REM Sleep R E M sleep is the stage when dreams occur
Learning Objective 9.5: Describe the characteristics of the sleep cycle.
R E M sleep is the stage when dreams occur
Releases the stresses and tensions of the day
R E M rebound: increased amounts of R E M sleep after being deprived of R E M sleep on earlier nights
REM myth: people deprived of REM sleep become paranoid, mentally ill
REM sleep in babies is 50%, and adults is 20%
As infants sleep, the brain makes new neural connections

17. Figure 4.3: A Typical Night’s Sleep

18. Sleep Disorders (1 of 2) Nightmares Night Terrors
Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.
Nightmares
Bad/terrifying dreams occurring during R E M sleep
Experienced more by children because they spend more sleep in REM state
Night Terrors
State of panic resulting in extreme fear
The person may scream, run around the room, and throw arms wildly
As a result, difficulty in breathing occurs
Relatively rare disorder

19. Sleep Disorders (2 of 2) Sleep walking (somnambulism)
Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.
Sleep walking (somnambulism)
Occurs in N3 deep sleep
More common among children than adults, boys than girls
Some episodes involve walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator, eating, getting into the car
No recall of the episode the next morning

20. Problems During Sleep (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.
Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, persistently waking too early, or get a good quality of sleep
Steps to get sleep
Go to bed only when sleepy
Don’t do anything in your bed but sleep
Don’t try too hard to get sleep
Go to bed at the same time, get up at the same time

21. Problems During Sleep (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 9.6: Identify the types of sleep disorders.
Sleep apnea
loud snoring happening every time a person sleeps
disorder in which the person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more
Narcolepsy
sudden sleep seizure during waking state
the person suddenly slips into REM sleep during the day

22. Table 9.1: Sleep Disorders

23. Dreams Sigmund Freud: Dreams as Wish Fulfillment
Learning Objective 9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.
Sigmund Freud: Dreams as Wish Fulfillment
The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Dreams reveal problems from conflict and events buried in unconscious
Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
Dreams are products of activities in the pons in the brainstem sending random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep
Another kind of thinking that occurs when people sleep

24. Figure 9.4: The Brain and Activation-Synthesis Theory
According to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming, the pons in the brainstem sends random signals to the upper part of the brain during REM sleep. These random signals pass through the thalamus, which sends the signals to the proper sensory areas of the cortex. Once in the cortex, the association areas of the cortex respond to the random activation of these cortical cells by synthesizing (making up) a story, or dream, using bits and pieces of life experiences and memories.

25. Dreams Activation-information-mode model (A I M)
Learning Objective 9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.
Activation-information-mode model (A I M)
Revised version of the Activation-Synthesis hypothesis
Information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams
When the brain is “making up” a dream to explain its own activation, it uses meaningful bits and pieces of the person’s experiences from the previous day or the last few days rather than just random items from memory.

26. What Do People Dream About?
Learning Objective 9.7: Compare perspectives on the functions of dreams.
Finding Meaning in Dreams: Dr. William Domhoff
men dream of other males
women dream about males and females equally
men have more physical aggression
women dream as victims of physical aggression
dreams differ based on the culture’s “personality”
men’s dreams involve weapons, tools, cars
women’s dreams involve people they know, personal appearances, issues on family and home

27. Module 10 Hypnosis and Drugs

28. Learning Objectives
10.1 Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.
10.2 Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.
10.3 Describe the nature of flow states.
10.4 Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.
10.5 Evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of psychoactive drugs.
10.6 Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
10.7 Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of
drugs.

29. Hypnosis
Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.
Hypnosis: a state of consciousness in which a person is especially susceptible to suggestion
Four key steps in inducing hypnosis:
The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said.
The person is told to relax and feel tired.
The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept suggestions easily.
The person is told to use vivid imagination.
A handy way to help people relax and control pain
Sometimes used as psychological therapy to help people cope with pain, anxiety, craving for food or drugs

30. Who Can Be Hypnotized?
Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.
People can be hypnotized when active and alert, and only if they are willing
Only 80% of all people can be hypnotized
Only 40% are good hypnotic subjects
People who can be hypnotized have areas of their brain associated with decision-making and attention, more active and connected
People cannot be hypnotized against their will
Basic Suggestion Effect – the tendency to act as though their behavior is automatic and out of control

31. Theories of Hypnosis
Learning Objective 10.1: Describe hypnosis and issues surrounding its nature and use.
Hypnosis as Dissociation – hypnosis works only on the immediate conscious mind of a person, while a part of that person’s mind (a “hidden observer”) remains aware of all that is going on
Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing – began with an experiment in which participants who were not hypnotized were instructed to behave as if they were
Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis – theory that assumes that people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation

32. Table 10.1 Facts About Hypnosis

33. Meditation What Is Meditation?
Learning Objective 10.2: Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.
What Is Meditation?
a series of mental exercises meant to refocus attention and achieve a trancelike state of consciousness
produces a state of relaxation that can aid in coping with the physiological reactions to a stressful situation
changes brain waves to include more theta and alpha waves (indicating deep relaxation)

34. Benefits of Meditation
Learning Objective 10.2: Understand meditation and relaxation and their effects.
The benefits of meditation
lowers blood pressure
increases the amounts of melatonin secreted at night
reduces the levels of chronic pain
reduces the symptoms of anxiety, depression, and hostility
reduces the risk of heart disease
reduces stress levels in cancer patients

35. Where Did the Time Go? (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 10.3: Describe the nature of flow states.
Dr. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s Theory of Flow states:
an outgrowth of positive psychology as events that challenge our skills enough to grow and improve in the skill, but not so difficult that the challenge creates anxiety
we lose ourselves in the activity and our sense of time is transformed in a way that fits the needs of the activity
the rewards of flow activities are intrinsic and are the product of a merging of the self and the activity so it becomes automatic and almost effortless

36. Where Did the Time Go? (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 10.3 : Describe the nature of flow states.
Some of the experiences that reflect the nature of flow states are:
athletes describe being in the zone
entertainers describe being lost in the music
artists describe their medium as an extension of themselves as they produce their works

37. Psychoactive Drugs
Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.
Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that alter thinking, perception, memory, or some combination of those abilities.
Can pose serious risks to one’s health and may even cause death when taken for pleasure, to get “high,” or to dull psychological pain, or when taken without the supervision of a qualified medical professional
Have the potential to create either physical or psychological dependence, both of which can lead to a lifelong pattern of abuse as well as the risk of taking increasingly larger doses, leading to drug overdose

38. Physical Dependence
Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.
Physical Dependence – condition that occurs when a person’s body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug
Signs of Physical Dependence
The user’s body craves for the drug
Drug tolerance, as the person continues to use the drug, larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to achieve the same initial effects of the drug
The user experiences symptoms of withdrawal (nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure) when deprived of the drug
Many users will take more of the drug to alleviate the symptoms of withdrawal, which makes the entire situation worse
Negative reinforcement, the tendency to continue a behavior that leads to the removal of or escape from unpleasant circumstances or sensations

39. Role of the Brain Brain plays an important part in drug dependency.
Learning Objective 10.4: Explain how psychoactive drugs act at the synaptic level.
Brain plays an important part in drug dependency.
When a drug enters the body, it goes to the area, known as the brain’s “reward pathway,” releasing dopamine and causing intense pleasure.

40. Psychological Dependence
Learning Objective 10.5: Evaluate the physiological and psychological effects of psychoactive drugs.
Psychological Dependence – the belief that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being
The body may not need the drug but they continue to use it because they think they need it
There is no withdrawal, can last forever

41. Psychoactive Drugs
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
The effect of a particular drug depends on the category to which it belongs and the particular neurotransmitter the drug affects.
Major drug categories
Stimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system
Depressants: drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system
Hallucinogenics: drugs that alter perceptions and may cause hallucinations

42. Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Stimulants are a class of drugs that cause either the sympathetic division or the central nervous system (or both) to increase levels of functioning, temporarily.
Stimulants “speed up” the neurons – the heart may beat faster or the brain may work faster, thus they are called “uppers.”

43. Stimulants Amphetamines Cocaine Nicotine Caffeine
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Amphetamines
Benzedrine, Methedrine, Dexedrine
Cocaine
Nicotine
Caffeine

44. Amphetamines Synthesized in laboratories
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Synthesized in laboratories
A related compound, methamphetamine, is used very rarely to treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or narcolepsy
“Crystal meth” is a crystalline form, smoked and used by recreational drug users
Amphetamine psychosis: condition causing addicts to become delusional and paranoid – they think people are out to “get” them; violence is a likely outcome, both against the self and others

45. Cocaine Found in coca plant leaves
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Found in coca plant leaves
Produces feelings of euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure
Deadens pain and suppresses the appetite
Highly dangerous drug
Some people have convulsions and may even die when using cocaine for the first time.
Children born to mothers who use cocaine have been associated with increased risk of learning disabilities, delayed language development, and an inability to cope adequately with stress.

46. Nicotine Relatively mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Relatively mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant
Produces a slight “rush” or sense of arousal as it raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart
Provides a rush of sugar into the bloodstream
Has a relaxing effect on most people and seems to reduce stress
The physical withdrawal symptoms can be as bad as those resulting from alcohol, cocaine, or heroin abuse

47. Caffeine A mild stimulant that almost everyone uses
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
A mild stimulant that almost everyone uses
Found in coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, and even many over-the-counter drugs
Helps maintain alertness, and can increase the effectiveness of some pain relievers such as aspirin
Often added to pain relievers and is the key ingredient in medications meant to keep people awake

48. Depressants: Down in the Valley
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Commonly known as tranquilizers or sleeping pills, barbiturates are drugs that have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect
Overdose can lead to death
Benzodiazepines – used to lower anxiety and reduce stress (Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, and Librium)
Common types: alcohol and narcotics

49. Alcohol Most commonly used and abused depressant
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Most commonly used and abused depressant
Obvious health risks to the liver, brain, and heart
Associated with loss of work time, loss of a job, and loss of economic stability
Indirectly stimulates the release of a neurotransmitter called GABA, the brain’s major depressant
GABA slows down or stops neural activity

50. Narcotics A type of depressant that suppresses the sensation of pain
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
A type of depressant that suppresses the sensation of pain
Binds and stimulates the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins
Slows down the action of the nervous system
Derivative of a particular plant-based substance, opium
Opium mimics the effects of endorphins, the nervous system’s natural painkillers

51. Morphine
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Created by dissolving opium in an acid and then neutralizing the acid with ammonia
Still used today to control severe pain, in controlled doses for very short periods
Heroin, a derivative of morphine, does not have many of the disagreeable side effects of morphine

52. Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Causes the brain to alter its interpretation of sensations and produces sensory distortions very similar to synesthesia
False sensory perceptions, called hallucinations, are often experienced, especially with more powerful hallucinogens
Two basic types of hallucinogens
created in a laboratory (manufactured highs)
from natural sources (nonmanufactured highs)

53. Manufactured Highs
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
LSD, or lysergic acid diethylamide, is synthesized from a grain fungus called ergot
A very tiny drop of LSD makes people get that high feeling, colors seem more intense, sounds more beautiful, and so on.
Experience is not always a pleasant one.
PCP (phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine or phencyclidine)
Depending on the dosage, it can be a hallucinogen, stimulant, depressant, or an analgesic drug.
MDMA (a “designer drug” known as Ecstasy or simply X) and PCP are now classified as stimulatory hallucinogenics

54. Nonmanufactured High
Learning Objective 10.6: Describe the major categories of psychoactive drugs and their effects.
Marijuana, a hallucinogenic drug, comes from the leaves and flowers of the hemp plant called cannabis sativa
Psychoactive cannabinoid, and the active ingredient in marijuana, is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Produces a feeling of wellbeing, mild intoxication, and mild sensory distortions or hallucinations
Marijuana creates a powerful psychological dependency, it does not produce physical dependency

55. Table 10.2 How Drugs Affect Consciousness

56. Who Uses Drugs?
Learning Objective 10.7: Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of drugs.
Those who cannot deal with psychological pressures from the outside world
Those who are depressed, who feel their lives are meaningless, hopeless, and directionless
Those who have recently left home or who suffer from anger, anxiety, or insomnia

57. Influence of Culture on Drugs
Learning Objective 10.7: Describe how culture and expectations influence the use and experience of drugs.
External forces can play a role in drug use as well
Peer pressure
Alcohol and other drugs are often found at parties
Culture also plays a role in substance use and abuse
Some cultures incorporate the use of drugs into religious rituals and ceremonies.
Some countries/states legalized the use of drugs for recreation.