1. APPLIED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: NRM 323/324 ; LWR 406 N.L Mufute, LWRM Department, MSU mufutenl@msu.ac.zw

2. Module Outline 1.Introduction 2.Watershed management Principles 3.Characteristics of a Watershed 4.Land-use Impacts on watersheds- Potential problems in a watershed, Watershed Degradation 5.Data Sources for watershed management 6.Tools and principles for watershed management – Watershed Delineation – Public/ stakeholder participation – Soil Loss Estimation; SLEMSA, USLE, Wind Equation. – Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Rural Appraisals – Environmental Impact Assessments, – Water Assessment: Quality and Quantity – Flood control/prevention – Vegetation cover assessments – Biological Monitoring Methods 7.Strategies for integrated watershed Resources Conservation and Management 8.Watershed Management plan

3. INTRODUCTION Watershed degradation in many developing countries threatens the livelihood of millions of people and constrains the ability of countries to develop or maintain a healthy agricultural and natural resource base. Increasing populations of people and livestock are rapidly depleting the existing natural resource base because the soil and vegetation systems cannot support present levels of use. In a sense, the carrying capacity of these lands is being exceeded. As populations continue to grow, the pressure on forests, grazing lands, and marginal agricultural lands lead to inappropriate cultivation practices, forest removal, and grazing intensities that, in the extreme case, leave a barren land that yields unwanted sediment and damaging floods to downstream communities. Recognizing the importance of resource conservation and sustainable use, especially in most of the developing countries where the economy is depending predominately on agriculture, watershed management has received over the last few decades an increasing attention from countries themselves as well as from concerned international and regional organizations.

4. What is a Watershed? Other terms used interchangeably for a watershed are drainage basin or catchment. A watershed is an area of land that forms the drainage system of a stream or river. It can also be defined as an area of land that drains to a common point. It captures water from precipitation on land within specific topographic boundaries such as hills, valleys, mountains and other landscapes. It is this function of a water shed that provides or makes available the clean water that is so necessary for life. Watershed boundaries follow major ridge lines around channels and meet at the bottom where water flows out of the watershed from a common point. Watersheds are dynamic places that sometimes become wet or dry due to high and low rainfall conditions, with differences in quality and quantity depending upon the season and even on what happens during an individual storm. Because water moves downstream, any activity that affects the water quantity, quality or rate of movement at any location affects locations downstream. A Watershed therefore is the ideal unit for multi-disciplinary planning and management of land and water resources – ensure continuous benefits – sustainable way

5. Watershed (Source: F. X. Browne, Inc. Watershed Management Fact Sheet)

6. Watershed Management It can be defined as the implementation of management systems which ensure the preservation, conservation and sustainable exploitation of the land and water resources for the socio-economic need of human society and the community concerned. It provides a systematic way for integrated development in any given watershed. It involves the exploration and development of the complex interrelationship between the resources of a watershed and the people of the area. Watershed management has to be sustainable and based on sound principles. A well managed watershed would permit maximum possible stability through the process of production, utilisation and where possible, regeneration of the resources within it.

7. The Need for Watershed Management Natural environments and ecosystems are generally fragile and susceptible to degradation. The degradation can be attributed to low or erratic rainfall patterns (climatic variability and change), increasing biotic pressure in the absence of adequate and appropriate management practices to augment and conserve the natural resources. The activities of people who live within a watershed affect the health of the waters that drain into it. These activities sometimes also change soil characteristics, vegetation type or cover, water quality, quantity, or rate of flow and other characteristics of rivers or streams in the watershed. Population growth and poverty on the land and pressure of rising demand from affluence on the other areas have also been exerting powerful pressure on resources in the watersheds. Therefore careful implementation of resource management techniques on a watershed basis is essential for the sustainable availability of water and other natural resources essential for the sustenance of communities.

8. Sound Watershed Management The main objectives of a sound watershed management program should therefore be to; Optimise the utilisation of land and water resources for multi-sectoral needs without compromising the ecological integrity of ecosystems, Reduce surface runoff, soil erosion, sedimentation, destruction of wetlands, floods and water pollution (i.e. to prevent or reduce watershed degradation), Ensure adequate supply of quality water. Some of the measures that can be adapted to achieve this include;  Conservation of natural vegetation cover and ecosystems in headwaters of rivers,  Implementation of sound soil and water conservation practices both, structural and non- structural at farm and community levels,  Construction of special purpose hydraulic structures such as dams to store water and to control floods and sedimentation in downstream areas.  Practicing integrated water resources management ; including for example implementation of water conservation and demand management programmes in order to support the optimum and equitable utilisation of water resources,  Development of appropriate, acceptable and implementable land use plans using participatory approaches,  Establishment of watershed authorities to regulate water and natural resources development,management and utilisation at catchment, national and international levels,  Establishment of catchment protection and or rehabilitation projects involving local people and promotion of exchange of knowledge and experiences between projects, communities and even countries.

9. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES Important Principles of Watershed Management Land should be utilised according to capability Maintain adequate cover for prevention and control of soil erosion Conserve maximum possible rainwater at places where it falls- Promote/Increase groundwater recharge Drain out excess water with safe velocity to avoid soil erosion and floods and; store it for future use Overall management of the available resources in a sustainable way

10. Watershed Management Principles Cont. Approaches to watershed management There are many ways in which a watershed can be managed. These can however be grouped into two main approaches; Integrated Watershed management approach and River board approach. Watershed Approach / Integrated Watershed Approach There is a broader view of the environment; activities can be more easily interconnected across local and regional boundaries. Takes into account the entire watershed, all streams, rivers, lakes and other bodies and all its sources rather than individual rivers / waterways. It takes into cognisance the interdependencies of the biotic and abiotic components of the watershed and regards the watershed as a functional unit. Includes stakeholders, Uses sound technical information, Sets clear objectives and priorities, Uses a systems approach that integrates all concerns and challenges, Measures success through monitoring and data gathering, It is interdisciplinary.

11. Watershed Management Principles Cont. The river board approach Usually focused on a single water way or sub watershed, Not integrated, it is usually disjointed therefore difficult to coordinate activities in different waterways/ sub watersheds within the same watershed; Priority is usually given to certain aspects of the watershed, leaving out the rest. For example to natural resources conservation with little focus on human activities and people priorities and needs; Neglects other beneficiaries and stakeholders’ involvement and contribution in the planning and implementation of the watershed management interventions. Equity, equality and efficiency difficult to achieve.

12. Steps in Establishing a Successful Watershed Management Program Determine the watershed boundaries. Identify Stakeholders Establish a Watershed Management Organization/Institution Develop Short- and Long-Term Goals Identify and Prioritize Problem Areas Involve the Public/ stakeholders Develop a Watershed Management Plan Implement the Watershed Management Plan Develop a Public Information Program Develop a Monitoring Program Re-Assess and Revise the Management Plan

13. CHARACTERISTICS OF A WATERSHED Watershed characteristics refer to the biophysical and socio economic features prevalent in the watershed. These characteristics need to be identified for management and planning purposes in the watershed. These include; – Size – Shape – Physiography – Climate – Drainage – Vegetation – Geology and soils – Topography – Hydrology – Hydrogeology – Land use – Socio-Economic Aspects

14. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Size- The size of a watershed forms the basis for further classification categories. Bali (1980) came up with the following classification; Watershed>500km 2 Sub watershed 100-500km 2 Milli watershed 10-100km 2 Micro watershed 1-10km 2 Mini watershed <1km 2

15. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Shape – Watersheds differ in their shape mainly due to factors related to the geology of the area. The general watershed shapes are pear, elongated, triangular and circular. Shape determines the length-width ratio which in turn affects the runoff characteristics of the watershed. Physiography – Type of land, its altitude and the physical disposition has a bearing on the climate and on land use planning in the watershed. As an example, a hilly area could be useful mainly for forestry and flat plains could be useful in crop production. Drainage- The order, pattern and density of drainage have a profound influence on run off, infiltration, land management, etc. It determines the flow characteristics and erosion behaviour.

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Geology and soils- Rocks and their structure control the formation of a watershed itself because their nature determines size, shape, physiography, drainage and ground water conditions. Soils which are derivatives of rocks have a bearing on the type of vegetation in an area or types of crops that can be grown. Soil parameters such as depth, moisture and fertility determine the choice of crops to grow for example. Rocks and soils together influence water flow, infiltration, seepage and storage. Hydrology- Availability, quality and distribution of water is basic to the growing of vegetation and crops. Hydrological parameters (climate, topography and geology) help in the quantification of available water for human use and for the environment. Land Use- It is vital for planning and implementation of projects in a watershed. It portrays man’s impact on the specific watershed and forms the basis for categorisation of the land for formulation of a pragmatic action plan.

17. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Socio-Economic Issues- Information on people, their numbers, gender, wealth/poverty levels, literacy levels, cultural practices, and beliefs, level of participation on issues of common concern in the area, type and level of economic activity is equally important in the sustainable management of a watershed.

18. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Vegetation- Detailed information on vegetation helps on its sustainable utilisation and management. Role of Vegetation in Watershed Management Arrests soil erosion Encourages infiltration there by reducing runoff, Slows down the building up of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, Provides basic needs; - food, shelter, industrial and medicinal raw materials, timber, etc., It beautifies the environment- it has a scenic value, Forests (hence watersheds) are threatened by the encroachment of farms, livestock grazing, deforestation, construction of dams, roads, mining and other activities. A change in vegetation or land use can have a negative effect on the watershed e.g. excessive runoff, erosion, deposition and land degradation. However not all the effects are negative for example deposition of sediments can be a rich source of fertile lands for downstream farming communities (flood plains).

19. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Determinants of vegetation variability Climate- Differences in rainfall and temperature regimes can also give rise to deferent vegetation characteristics, Topographic factors - give rise to different vegetation types, for example Vegetation at the top of the catena is likely to be different from the one at the bottom, Differences in soils- Soil types, soil moisture regimes, soil temperature regimes and pH lead to changes in the environment which leads, to different types of vegetation. Fire- Areas prone to fires have a vegetation described as fire climax vegetation, Human activities and land use- have both negative (e.g. land clearing and poor tillage practices) and positive (e.g. Plantations) effects on vegetation. N.B these factors do not affect vegetation in isolation; they work together to cause vegetation variability. If we can detect those vegetation variations caused by the different factors, then we can be better able to manage the vegetation.

20. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Vegetation Characteristics Vegetation structure There are 4 types of vegetation structure; – Physiognomic structure It describes the vegetation outlook, what does it look like, is it wetland, bush land, grassland or tree, – Floristic structure – describes that composition of species, – Physiographic structure – describes the physical characteristics of vegetation – broadleaf, narrow leafed, coniferous, deciduous etc, – Stand structure- describes the patterning of vegetation – is it clumpy or scattered. Height, Diameter or circumference of the tree species at the breast height, Basal area of the tree, Density of trees – number of trees per unit area, canopy cover Understanding vegetation characteristics helps to; – Better understand factors responsible for vegetation variation, – Estimate of the relative abundance of species, – Have an insight into the condition of vegetation; e.g. is it a fire climax vegetation, or is it always disturbed by herbivores. – Have an insight on how the vegetation can be utilised. – Understanding vegetation characteristics therefore gives an indication of the management techniques that can be employed on the vegetation.

21. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Environmental (ecological) Gradients It is a term used to describe a range of environmental conditions that affect distribution of plant species. Plant species are usually abundant where the environmental conditions are optimum (pH, moisture, temperature, nutrients, sunlight, etc). Therefore species composition changes along environmental gradients and the significance of this is realised in the occurrence of different vegetation types in space and time, The study of vegetation – environmental relations along gradients have therefore formed an important basis for watershed management. There are two types of environmental gradients; these are direct and indirect gradients. Direct gradients- Those that impose a direct influence on vegetation growth such as soil pH, nutrients availability, soil moisture, temperature, etc. Indirect gradients are those that do not impose a direct influence on vegetation growth e.g. topography, slope, altitude etc.

22. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Environmental Gradients Cont. Environmental gradients are important in land- soil management because; They are an indication of land and soil management problems that are likely to be found at a site such as acidity, sodicity, drainage, etc., They provide an indication of land potential for a specified land use e.g. potential for wetland rice, tobacco, etc, They serve as a preliminary classification of areas,

23. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Uplands Soils are mainly coarse to medium grained, well drained, shallow and infertile sandy soils, They have a low percentage clay, base saturation, low CEC, They are acidic i.e. have low pH values, They are non sodic; ESP values < 4 The major land management problems associated with these watershed sites are mainly acidity due to rapid leaching, poor soil fertility and erosion. Poor cultivation practices easily lead to soil degradation and low yields. Land management in these areas should include liming, gypsum incorporation and fertiliser application. On liming, the H + cation is replaced by metallic cations. Liming material should contain oxides and hydroxides of carbonates of calcium and magnesium. Liming has the following benefits; Solubility of aluminium and iron oxides decreases, Percentage base saturation increases, Exchangeable calcium and sodium increases, Biological activity and soil structure improves by flocculation and formation of aggregates, Increases the availability of phosphorous and molybdenum.

24. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Low Lands In Zimbabwe soils with high ESP>9 within the first 80cm depth have been classified as sodic soils, Generally the soils are dry, compact, alkaline and poorly drained, These soils are derived from granite rich feldspars rich in Sodium and under wet conditions clay particles repel one another (deflocculation ). This impedes water flow but promotes clay movement. Due to clay movement, erosion of surface layer occurs, leading to bare ground devoid of vegetation in some places, The most common vegetation types on these areas are bush savannah and grasses, The major problems in these areas are sodicity and salinity, Sodicity causes unstable soil structure which inhibits drainage and leaching. In addition soils are hard and compact leading to poor rooting conditions and poor workability.

25. CHARACTERISTICS OF WATERSHEDS Cont. Wetlands An important but fragile resources commonly found in low lying areas

26. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Land-use Impacts on watersheds Result form these and other anthropogenic activities; – Residential Activities e.g uncontrolled dumping – Municipal Sources e.g raw or partially treated sewage – Construction e.g. Roads and dams – Mining Operations – Industrial activities – Agriculture – Forestry Practices – Recreation

27. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Potential Problems Associated with Watersheds – Flooding – Unstable Slopes / Land Slides – Erosion from Denuded Land – Deficient Water Supplies – Energy Shortage – Food Shortage – Poor Quality Drinking Water – Polluted Streams / Reduced Fishing – Sedimentation of Navigation Tracks. – Timber Shortage (for Dwelling Purposes) – Etc.

28. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Watershed Degradation It is a long term reduction in the quantity and quality of water resources and other natural resources such vegetation and soil due to anthropogenic and natural factors. There is a clear distinction between watershed degradation and land degradation. Land degradation concerns the reduction in the productivity of land and may cause degradation of watersheds Anthropogenic Causes of Watershed Degradation Overgrazing, Over Cultivation, Land clearing Poor waste disposal systems, Facilitating or allowing the Invasion of alien plants, etc,. Overgrazing and compaction of soils occur when stocking rates exceed the capacity of the relevant area to sustainably support the number of animals. This leads to reduction in the vegetation cover and compaction of soil through trumping which leads to soil erosion. Other effects of overgrazing are changes in soil structure, decrease in abundance of perennial grasses, shrub encroachment, decreasing quantity and quality of forage, reduction in palatable and nutritious plant species.

29. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Deforestation It is caused by land clearing for cultivation, bush fires, timber and firewood harvesting and development of settlements and infrastructure. It is a major cause of watershed degradation in Southern Africa. Cultivation Cultivated lands are without any vegetation cover at the beginning of the rain season. Without adequate soil conservation measures, soils are susceptible to erosion. Excessive erosion may impair water quality and reduce the capacity of streams to store and convey water. Alien Species Invasion The invasion of alien plant species along rivers or riparian zones is a problem of particular concern in Southern Africa. The major concern over alien plants is their effects on water resources. Their invasion will alter the water balance in the watershed; e.g. rates of transpiration are altered.

30. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Extent and Severity of Watershed Degradation It is difficult to quantify the extent and severity because there are no universally accepted measures or classification guidelines. Middleton and David (1992)’s Classification of Watershed Degradation Severity and Extent – Stable- No evidence of degradation, – Low Degradation – Top soil has been reduced which reduces agricultural production potential, but restoration is possible, – Moderate to high- This would require major improvement in land use practices in order to restore the degraded land. Agricultural production potential has been greatly reduced, – Very high Degradation- It is not possible to restore the land without major restoration work.

31. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Soil Degradation FAO Definition of Soil degradation: It is a process that lowers the current and or the potential capability of a soil to produce goods and services. Soil degradation is the form of erosion that occurs under natural conditions but improper management of land resources aggravates it. Although there is little precise information on soil degradation in Zimbabwe, there are sufficient indicators of erosion on farms and elsewhere. These include low and unsustainable crop yields and grazing, increased siltation of rivers, eutrophication, and reduction of dams’ lifespan. The distribution of excessive soil erosion is more related to human activities than to natural variability. Average soil loss on commercial farms has been estimated to be 15tons/ha/year on croplands and 3 tons /ha /yr on grazing lands. For communal lands, the averages are 50 tons/ha/yr and 75tons/ha/yr on croplands and grazing lands respectively. Degradation is particularly severe in shallow sandy soils where the plants are shallow rooted and nutrients are concentrated in the thin surface layers. Such soils in the semi arid areas are usually low in organic matter content. They are prone to crusting and resist cultivation and water infiltration. Some of the major causes of soil degradation are; over cultivation, Poor tillage practices, stream bank cultivation, overgrazing and removal of ground cover such as crop residues and trees. Other causes are monoculture and excessive tillage especially of vleis or wetlands. The unseen economic burden of this erosion is enormous and with continued degradation will eventually have a severe impact on the availability of farming lands.

32. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Symptoms of soil degradation Loss of nutrients Yield Decline. There is negative exponential relationship between erosion in tons per hectare per year and yield in t/ha/yr. There are large incremental losses in yield due to a small increase in erosion. Gullies. Formation of gullies is a sign that erosion is taking place/. Gullies make land preparations difficult and unsafe with normal drainage and stream flow. Loss of rain water due to run off. - This is very significant in semi- areas where vegetation cover is very poor. Depositional effects.- Eroded soil deposited elsewhere causes problems such as siltation of rivers, dams and irrigation channels for examples. Eutrophication- Poisoning of water supplies by runoff, washing away of pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers, industrial waste into water bodies such as rivers, lakes and dams.

33. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED FAO Classification of Soil Degradation Physical degradation It is related to the decline in soil structure leading to crusting, compaction, excessive overland flow and accelerated erosion. Depending on soil properties and terrain characteristics, sheet erosion can turn into gully erosion and other forms of mass movement. High soil temperature can also accentuate soil physical degradation by affecting soil structure and rate of several processes within the soil. Physical degradation is also aggravated by drastic changes in the hydrological cycle and by deforestation and intensive agricultural activities. Chemical degradation Included under this category are leaching, acidification, salinisation, sodification, eutrophication and chemical toxicities. Disruptions in the N, P,C cycles lead to chemical degradation in soils, The most important form of chemical degradation is acidification due to depletion of bases e.g. (Ca, Mg, K) and accumulation of H + and Al + at the exchange sites. Biological Degradation Reduction in the quantity and quality of soil organic matter and biotic activity and species diversity of soil fauna are important forms of biological degradation. Land use and soil – crop management systems with adverse effects on soil fauna accentuate biological degradation. Other causes of Biological degradation include exotic species invasions, deforestation and loss of biodiversity.

34. LAND-USE IMPACTS ON WATERSHEDS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN A WATERSHED Watershed Deterioration Consequences Low Productivity- agriculture, grasslands, forests- reduction in biomass Declining of groundwater levels- Siltation of reservoirs, lakes, channels, etc. Frequent floods and droughts Land degradation and erosion Water quantity and quality problems Poverty – economic and social problems

35. The challenge of getting the Watershed Management projects accepted by stakeholders This mostly arises from the long gestation period and difficulty in perceiving project benefits. Some watershed projects may have short term effects, but most watershed projects have long term impacts, some of which may be difficult to evaluate or even perceive. Soil erosion, for example, is a slow process in many places and the benefits of arresting it may not be recognized easily. Recharging groundwater, stabilizing hillsides through vegetative cover, and increasing soil moisture and organic matter all take time. As a result, it is difficult to know what conditions would have prevailed in the absence of project interventions. Perceiving benefits is particularly difficult where interventions do not raise productivity but merely prevent gradual degradation.

36. Factors determining the success of watershed management projects Whether or not a project achieves its objectives depends not only on watershed activities but also a variety of other factors. These may include: Local agro-climatic conditions, Land tenure arrangements, People’s willingness and ability to work together to devise arrangements to share benefits and costs Infrastructure and market conditions. As a result, it can be difficult to pinpoint the specific contribution of a watershed project in improving land management, and it can be difficult to compare across projects. Even if impacts are perceptible, it is difficult to assess the economic value of the numerous potential project benefits that do not enter the market. These include such environmental and natural resource improvements as greater abundance and wider diversity of natural flora and fauna, higher groundwater levels, and lower risk of landslides and flooding, etc. There is therefore a great need for stakeholder awareness raising on the benefits of watershed management programs if these programs are to successfully take off in a given area. This awareness is required even at policy level where institutions and frameworks need to be put in place to facilitate watershed management on the ground.

37. STRATEGIES FOR INTEGRATED WATERSHED RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT These include Strategies for Soil Conservation and Management Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management Strategies for conservation and utilisation of other natural resources e.g. minerals Land use planning and land capability classification

38. Strategies for Soil Conservation and Management Basically there two main approaches to soil conservation; namely the soil erosion prevention approach and the eroded land rehabilitation approach. The former involves the use of practices and techniques which maintain erosion rates at minimum levels. The other approach deals with the restoration of the land that is already degraded. In both approaches, biological, mechanical and traditional measures can be used.

39. Mechanical Control Contour ridges and storm drains – They are very effective in controlling and diverting run off. Terracing - breaking slopes into flat areas separated by steep sides. Terracing retards runoff and encourages deposition thereby reducing soil erosion and increasing the availability of moisture for plant growth especially in semi arid and arid areas. Ploughing along contours or across the slope. Tied ridging Use of mechanical structures such as stones,tree branches or sand bag pitching across gullies to trap organic matter encouraging siltation and also facilitating vegetation growth which further binds the soil and reduce erosion. Use of gabions which are baskets usually made of wire netting filled with stones used to block gullies. Infiltration ditches.

40. Biological Control Grass strips Cover crops, Agro forestry, Reforestation. Wind breaks Strip cropping, Contour cropping Land fertilisation, Mulching,

41. Cultural and Indigenous Methods Cultural Methods These are a combination of mechanical and biological soil and water conservation measures. Examples are mulch ripping, crop rotations and inter cropping. Indigenous Methods These are methods that evolved over time through passing on and sharing of knowledge and experiences by local people from one generation to another. An example of these methods is mixing of several crops in one field. This discourages runoff and erosion. Advantages of these methods include the spreading of risk thereby increasing chances of a better harvest and increased food supply through mixed cropping. They are also regarded as cheap and efficient in the utilisation of pieces of land. One drawback of these methods is that they are suitable and practical mostly for subsistence farming. They were also at one point regarded as backward and uncivilised.

42. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management The environmental importance of water makes it one of the most indispensible natural resources. According to Mukwada (2000), Water has both direct and indirect importance to a variety of sectors, including; Forestry, Agriculture, Fishing and aquaculture, Mining, Recreation and Industry Domestic use There is widespread failure to understand the impact of development on water resources. According to IUCN/UNEP/WWF cited in Mukwada (2000); Our use of water resources is creating a crisis for much of the world. Global water withdrawals are believed to have increased 35 fold during the past three centuries and are still increasing. As demand for water increases, the average water consumption per capita has declined remarkably in densely populated regions. Consequently, competition among water users is fast growing and problems of water scarcity have already started to affect some communities. Because of the above mentioned reasons, there is need to conserve and use sustainably the available water resources in our watersheds. To achieve this, the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach has to be used in the management of water resources.

43. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) It is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. (Global Water Partnership, 2000) This approach ensures equitable, efficient, economic and sustainable utilisation and management of water resources. Water needs for the environment are also considered in this approach. This approach will also facilitate the following:

44. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Cont. Development of Water Management Master Plans To ensure that water resources are efficiently and sustainably used, the development of water resources, distribution networks, storage facilities and allocation programmes should be properly co-ordinated through the development of master plans. The master plans could be at any of the following levels; Regional, National, watershed, municipality, district, However the plans should be well linked and co-ordinated at these levels; an integrated approach should be used in master plan development. Regional and International Co-Operation on Trans-boundary Rivers and International Water Sources This can be beneficial in the following areas; Pollution control, Water abstraction, Scientific Management.

45. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Cont. Some strategies for water resources conservation and management are given below. These approaches are complemented by soil and plant conservation strategies. Water Harvesting This technique involves the trapping of rain water and its storage. Some of the basic methods of harvesting water are as follows; Construction of dams to impound streams and rivers, Diversion of water from small streams to the fields through the use of earth ridges, Inter-basin transfers e.g using tunnels and canals Collection of rain water from roof tops by gutters and leading to storage tanks Use of water collection pavements which can be lined or unlined. The run off generated is also lead to storage tanks, Use of desalinisation plants and phosphate stripping plants to convert saline sea water into fresh water. This is especially helpful in regions of water scarcity but is expensive,

46. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Cont. Water recycling Involves the reclamation of waste water from municipalities’ sewerage plants, bathrooms and kitchens. Use of legislation and government policy In order to ensure equitable access to water and its efficient allocation, regulations and laws are often promulgated so as to control the manner in which water resources are used and managed. Examples are The revised Zimbabwe water act of 1998, The ZINWA Act, and The Environmental Management Act of 2000.

47. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Cont. Awareness Campaigns and Educational Programmes The attitude of viewing water as a ‘free good’ or ‘limitless resource’ needs to be dispelled through widespread and intensive awareness campaigns and educational programmes. The following should be given attention; Communities should be provided with basic information about the link between water availability and the water cycle. This information should be made readily available at grass roots level, Schools, colleges, news media including newspapers, television, radio and also libraries can be used as agents for dissemination of information about water management programmes, The attitude of the public should be changed so that less water is used for non- essential uses such as watering of ornamental gardens, filling of swimming and ornamental pools, Primary health institutions should be actively involved in imparting knowledge about the relationship between health and pollution, hygiene as well as sanitation, Communities should be made aware of the role and importance of wetlands and aquatic ecosystems in the hydrological cycle as well as the means to preserve them.

48. Strategies for Water Resources Conservation and Management Cont. Research and Data Collection Research and collection of scientific data on the hydrological cycle, water utilisation and management, pollution and related environmental consequences should be carried out. If possible, collected and processed data should be made readily available to planners, water users and other stakeholders. Training In order to build a watershed / nation’s capacity to manage its water resources effectively, its citizens, especially water users, and planners should be trained in water management skills. The areas that should be covered include; Development of water sources, Conservation and sustainable water use, Linkages between water availability and the environment, and Collection and analysis of data on water resources. Planning and Designing Appropriate planning and designing, ranging from dam construction to the laying of sewers and irrigation schemes construction should be done so as to increase efficiency and minimise wastages.

49. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management Setting up Protected Areas Protected areas include wildlife and forest reserves where conservation or preservation of plant and animal species is the main activity. In order to successfully implement this strategy measures must be taken comprising the ; Setting up of sound, legal and administrative infrastructure for sustainable management of biological species. Development of a national and watershed plan for ensuring proper administration of protected areas, Involvement of local people in the formulation and development of both national policy on bio diversity and the actual conservation of bio diversity, Involvement of locals or indigenous people in the day to day management of protected areas and directing any returns from such areas to them so that their communities directly benefit from the conservation of biological natural resources, Careful land use planning to prevent the fragmentation of protected areas.

50. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Adopting a collective approach to plant and animal conservation This provides the following advantages; Efforts of national and international agencies, including government and NGOs are fully co-ordinated, Restrictions on shipping and trade of plants and animals can become easier to monitor, consequently CITES (Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species) regulations become easier to enforce. Conflicts are minimised where transboundary biological reserves particularly wildlife reserves, exist, Ecological catastrophes, including those which often arise from adverse environmental conditions such as droughts and outbreak of diseases, can be avoided as inter-agency co-operation ensures easy translocation of wildlife and enforcement of quarantine regulations, Information, expertise and technology related to conservation can be exchanged more easily, Policing of transboundary reserves such as game reserves becomes more effective.

51. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Training and research in management of bio-diversity This should be done for the following reasons; The distribution status and general behaviour of biological species and ecosystems should be researched upon, Data should be gathered about the impact of humans on species and ecosystems, as well as the relationships between species and species and the natural environment, The role of modern scientific knowledge and the importance of indigenous technical knowledge in biological conservation should be established, Managers of biodiversity should receive adequate training in both aerial and ground census techniques, valuation of biological resources, advanced methods of monitoring the state of biological resources- including remote sensing, For the purposes of management of biodiversity wildlife managers should be trained to develop effective data storage systems such as GIS and receive training in the management of databases,

52. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Conjunctive use of in-situ and ex-situ conservation measures. In-situ conservation refers to the conservation of plants or animals in their natural habitats. Ex-situ conservation involves the translocation of species from their natural, usually degraded, and endangered habitats, into preserves such as zoos, for animals and botanic gardens and herbariums for plants. Sustainable utilisation of bio-diversity This depends on the ability to assess stocks and the productive potential of the exploited species populations and ecosystems so as to limit use within the potential.

53. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Supporting Community based natural resources management programmes To facilitate the success of community based conservation programmes certain conditions must be met, including; Granting of property rights to resource users. This acts as an incentive for conservation, Other incentives which local communities should obtain from participating in natural resources conservation are; Shares obtained from entrance fees to protected areas, Proceeds from fines paid by illegal wildlife users, Compensation for wildlife damages which arise in the protected areas that fall under their jurisdiction as a result of development programmes, Exemptions from taxes for distinguished conservation works, Access to natural resources biodiversity products such as meat and fruit, Assistance granted to the community by development agencies,

54. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. According to IUCN/UNEP/WWF (1991) cited in Mukwada (2000), governments, development agencies and conservation organisations should; – Integrate rural development with conservation and sustainable use of biological resources, – Provide a direct, immediate, legally guarantied and sustainable economic return to communities, which participate in biological conservation, – Encourage conservation groups to use indigenous species, which they have sufficient knowledge about, – Enhance the capacity of local authorities through financial support and training so that they can adequately promote community based conservation programmes. The Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) is an example of community based conservation programmes.

55. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Improved methods of resource harvesting These include; Selective cutting and strip cutting of trees as opposed to clear cutting, Harvesting all parts of trees, Development techniques which enable the full utilisation of all the by- products of plants and animals. In Zimbabwe for e.g, sawdust can now be compacted into fuel briquettes or chip board, Encouraging plants and animals to mature before they are harvested. This practice promotes the maintenance of stock since plants and animals are allowed to reproduce before they are harvested.

56. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Replacement of destroyed or harvested resources  This can be done through;  Encouraging breeding of animals,  Promoting aforestation and reforestation Promotion of traditional methods of agriculture and wildlife management  There are many approaches, which allow economic development and wildlife to co-exist.  Among them are agro forestry and the practice of pastoral farming along the margins of forest reserves.  Examples of types of agro forestry include woodlots, Home gardens (e.g. fruit trees and herbs), wind breaks, contour vegetation strips, hedge rows, and roadside trees. Strengthening the existing conventions on biodiversity e.g. CITES Enhancement of global co-operation

57. Strategies for Plant and Animal Conservation and Management cont. Strategies for conservation and utilisation of other natural resources e.g. minerals Strategies for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of these resources need also to be put in place to ensure that the watershed management plan is all inclusive of all natural resources in the watershed. Land use planning and land capability classification It is an important aspect of watershed management as it forms the basis for the production of watershed management plans. It is not going to be covered in this module as it is covered in other modules.

58. DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT: Reports & Publications Reports – Water Consumption – Evapotranspiration – Rainfall – Stream flow – Groundwater – Water Quality – Population – Livestock

59. DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Cont.: Analog Maps and Satellite Images – Agro-Climate – Agro-Ecology – Soils – Admin Boundaries – Topography – Social Infrastructure – Economic Infrastructure – Land Use Digital Satellite Data Digital Map Data Digital Tabular Data

60. DATA SOURCES FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Cont.: Data acquisition and management Mostly involves Extraction of data from existing sources such as reports, maps, images, photos etc, Monitoring, Measurement, Data storage and maintenance(hard copy files, and digital storage), GIS data manipulation and analysis, Remote sensing

61. TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Water Assessment: Quality and Quantity – Water Quality Monitoring Temperature pH Dissolved Oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand Nutrients Pathogens Turbidity – Water Quantity Water Resource Assessment Run off estimation- GIS based modelling, Rational formula, etc. Hydrograph Analysis Water yield determination

62. TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Cont. Flood control/prevention Vegetation cover assessments Biological Monitoring Methods – Species Indicators – Biological Integrity – Habitat Index – Land Use Index Land Use Planning

63. TOOLS AND SKILLS FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Cont. Watershed Delineation Participation Principles Rapid Rural Appraisals and Participatory Rural Appraisals, Soil Loss Estimation; - SLEMSA, USLE, Wind Equation. Environmental Impact Assessments,

64. DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES An understanding of the various characteristics of the watershed requires appropriate knowledge of its delineation. Delineation of a watershed is essential as the shape of the watershed surface determines how water will flow across it. Most commonly adopted techniques for watershed delineation uses data from: Topographical maps Aerial photography. Satellite imagery or Remote Sensing.

65. DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Cont. Use of Topographical Maps (Toposheets) These are maps which show spatial distribution of topographic attributes which can be used to map various aspects of a watershed using relatively simple techniques. These maps provide primary but most accurate data which acts as basic inputs for the formulation of any further advanced methods of water shed deliniation. These maps provide information of both physical and cultural features existing in the area by the use of symbols. Accuracy of interpretation of data from toposheets, needs not only the knowledge of the symbol but also it is required that the interpreter should have adequate prior information about the topography of the area. Some of the symbols and their associated features are described below.

66. DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Cont. Use of Topographical Maps ( Cont.)  The blue lines drawn on toposheets are conservative representation of stream network as they only represent permanently flowing or major streams. In arid regions, where ephemeral streams dominate, these are depicted by dark or black lines.  Contours are represented by brown lines. An effective understanding of this symbol can solve many issues such as whether the surface is an upslope, valley or a flat terrain.  Once an interpreter has significant knowledge of contour patterns, he will be able to draw the flow direction of streams in a watershed.  The basic drawback of contour information is that it fails to provide information about heights of areas between contours. In this case one has to see the spot heights and depend upon interpolation techniques. A watershed therefore can be delineated using information on contour patterns, spot heights and stream patterns and their sources.

67. DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Cont. Aerial Photographs They provide a three dimensional view of an area. The photographs are obtained through both photo- interpretation and photogrammetry. Aerial photographs also known as stereograms and are placed under stereoscopes. When the interpreter looks through the lenses, a three dimensional view of the terrain can be seen. Though the technique is prone to error, it is one of the most reliable techniques for the smooth delineation of watershed boundaries.

68. DELINEATION OF WATERSHED BOUNDARIES Cont. Remote Sensing Interpretation of satellite images requires skill because the features depicted exhibit different tone, pattern, texture and resolution. As an example, for watershed delineation, Indian satellite images IRS IA and IRS images having resolutions of 72.5m (LISS 1) and 36.25m (LISS II) are used. Landforms like hills and high relief features can easily be recognised from these images. Streams, both ephemeral and perennial can be easily interpreted as these are linear features with distinct signatures (dull white and dark blue). GIS and Remote Sensing provide tools to delineate watersheds using computer models. Though toposheets provide basic information about physiographic attributes, sometimes the information has to be interpolated. This can easily and speedily be done by a GIS. Using hydrological models in GIS (e.g. ILWIS) which have the ability for acquisition, storage and presentation of topographic information, one can extract stream network using Digital elevation models (DEMs). Other attributes such as slope and catchment area can also be derived from DEMs.

69. PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION Watershed Management Project planning and implementation should ensure effective and well-timed public/ stakeholder participation and consultation. All interested citizens and interest groups have the right to express their opinions, both while a program is being prepared and when it is being implemented. Public consultation and participation can be employed at virtually every stage of a project but is especially important at project inception. The reasons why the public must be involved include: To ensure cooperation and support of the stake holders can be obtained, To inform stakeholders on projects To allow for presentation of views, concerns and values Local inhabitants may provide local expertise and knowledge;

70. PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION Public participation may help to identify the important issues or concerns determining the scope of the project; Local inhabitants may propose additional project alternatives; Public participation ensures that possible later conflicts will be avoided; Positive public opinion might serve as a useful additional argument when requesting a development consent; Public participation ensures the openness of the project implementation process. Public participation should be as continuous as possible to avoid the loss of interest from the participating parties. Clear rules and procedures for public participation should be established, e.g. who can to participate, by which means and on which terms.

71. PUBLIC/ STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION Levels of public participation Informing (one way flow of information) Consulting (two way flow of information, opportunities for the public to express views) (Full) Participating (public involved in decision-making) Principles for successful public participation provide sufficient and relevant information allow sufficient time to get acquainted with relevant information and discuss allow sufficient time to present views provide responses to issues/ problems raised choose correct public participation methods and times of events to suit stakeholders

72. Stakeholders in Natural Resources Use and Management (Adapted from: Mukwada, 2000) StakeholderRole in Natural Resource Management Government Ministries and Departments -Policy formulation, -Enforcement of legislation -Financial support Quasi- government Departments including local authorities and parastatals -Co-ordination of natural resource management plans -Mobilization of public Support and education of the public on principles of sustainable development. Civil organisations and Non Governmental Organisations -Lobbying governments and the public on sustainable development and sound NRM, -Financial support for research and development Inter-governmental organisations & international development agencies -Provision of support for capacity building in natural resources management -Financial support for research and development Industrialists, Workers and Trade Unions -Management of waste -Protection of workplace from pollution and resource destruction -Development of policies which foster sustainable resource exploitation -Promotion of responsible and ethically sound management of natural resources, pollution control, health, environmental safety. Financial Institutions-Provision of financial support for natural resource management Farmers-Development of environmentally sound farming practices and technologies, -Development of low input and low energy technologies -Support of research in natural resource management. Universities, Scientists and Technologists -Formation of advisory groups on resource management, -Promotion of environmental education and research, -Creating forums for sharing researched information and knowledge, -Lobbying farmers, industrialists and governments to pursue sustainable development options and natural resource management. Local communities and traditional leaders -Promotion of sustainable development by fostering eco-development and indigenous Women and Children; ordinary community members -Day to day use and management of natural resources and the environment through the regulation of: -Firewood collection, Water collection, Tilling of land -Pottery, Basketry, Fishing, Hunting,etc.

73. TOOLS AND FOR WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Cont. SOIL LOSS ESTIMATION – See separate hand out. PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (PRA) – See separate hand out. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) – See separate hand out.

74. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Contents of a Watershed Plan Document The exact contents of the plan vary from watershed to watershed depending on its characteristics and the focus and objectives of the watershed managers and community among other factors. However, the document generally includes the following: – Executive Summary – An Overview of the Watershed – Existing Conditions/Issues in the watershed – The Actual Watershed Management Plan – Watershed Management Planning Process – Elements of Plan – Appendices

75. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont. Executive Summary Purpose of the management plan Summarises the contents of the plan document An Overview of the Watershed Location and description History and background Agreements and regulations Natural features Non-natural features Natural resources uses Economic activities in the watershed Include a Map if possible

76. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont. Existing Conditions/Issues in the watershed Highlighting issues that threaten the integrity of the watershed e.g.; existence of Farming activities Mining activities Timber harvesting Overgrazing Deforestation, Land clearing Include a Map if possible

77. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont. The Actual Watershed Management Plan Mission statements e.g. for; The local authority (ies) in which the water shed is located, The watershed mission statement Watershed Management Planning Process Process and participants Watershed resources management and planning principles Public demands and expectations Elements of Plan For the identified Issues have; Goals and recommendations Actions and implementation plans

78. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PLAN Cont. Appendices Additional uses to be considered Alternatives for managing and controlling resource use rules and regulations governing resources use and management Issues (from public open house) Scientific names of species in the Watershed Organizations and acronyms Summary of Comments: Public Open House Meetings, etc There is a separate handout on an example of a watershed management plan.

79. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES Randhir, T.O. 2007. Watershed Management: Issues and Approaches. IWA Publishing, London. Khan M.A. 2002. Watershed Management for Sustainable Agriculture. Agrobios, India. Wani, S.P. et al. 2003. Farmer-Participatory Integrated Watershed Management: Adarsha Watershed, Kothapally India. SAT e- Journal August 2006 | Volume 2 | Issue 1|. ejournal.icrisat.org FAO (Undated). Fact Sheet: Participatory Watershed Management Central Board of Irrigation and Power, India (1998) Proceedings of the International Conference on Watershed Management and Conservation; New Delhi, India 8-10 December 1998. Clear Creek County Open Space Commission, 2006. Beaver Brook Watershed Management Plan Rouge River National Wet Weather Demonstration Project, 1998. User's Manual: Watershed Management Model Version 4.1Soil Loss Estimation. Farrington J et al. (1999). Participatory Watershed Development: challenges for the twenty-first century; Oxford University Press. Jan de Graaff (1996) The Price of Soil Erosion: an economic evaluation of soil conservation and watershed development. FAO/Faculty of Forestry (Thailand) (1996) Watershed Management for the Future; Volume 6 of the proceedings of the FORTROP’96 International Conference, Bangkok, Thailand 25-28 November 1996. FAO Publication (2000) Developing Participatory and Integrated Watershed Management: A Case Study of the FAO/Italy Inter- regional Project for Participatory Upland Conservation and Development (PUCD). Class Notes: Introduction Watershed Management. Samarakoon, L. Geoinformatics Centre, AIT/ JAXA Gamal, A and Ibrahim, Y. 1994. Decision Support System for Integrated Watershed Management. Colorado State University. ASAE. 1982. Hydrological Modelling of Small Watersheds. ASCE. 1975. Watershed Management. Black, A.M.1991. Watershed Hydrology. Prentice Hall, London. Michael, AM.1992. Irrigation Engineering. Vikas Publications. Rajora, R. 1998. Integrated Watershed Management-Principles and Practice. John Wiley and Sons, London. Purandare, A.P, Jaiswal, A.K. 1995. Watershed Developement in India. NIRD, Hyderrabad. Vir Singh, Raj. 2000. Watershed Planning and Management. Yash Publishing House, Bikaner. Debarry, P.A. 2004. Watershed Processes, Assessments and management. Wiley, London. NPTEL Video: Watershed Management. Department of Civil Engineering, IIT, Bombay, India. http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in. Date Downloaded: 27-7-2012.http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in The Ten Towns Great Swamp Watershed Management Committee Fact Sheet. F. X. Browne, Inc. Watershed Management Consultants. Date Downloaded: 4 June 201. http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/watershed http://www.watersheds.com/ http://iucn.org/themes/sui/index.html