1. History of Psychology What is Psychology? Typical answer is “The scientific study of the mind and behavior.” Answer assumes that Psychology is a science, so a further question to ask is “What is science?” Science: Theory-driven pursuit of knowledge about the natural work based on empirical observation and testing. (my definition) Google search “definition of science” : Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence.

2. Science according to Karl Popper Science starts with (1) problem-inspired observation, (2) conjecture(s) about the nature of the observation (why is what I’m observing happening), (3) refutations: attempts to disconfirm or falsify the conjecture(s). Conjectures that fail to be falsified are accepted as tentative theoretical explanation for observed phenomena. According to Popper, science will lead us closer to the Truth(s), because there really is an objective, universal Truth that exists out there apart from human experience.

3. Science according to Thomas Kuhn Science is a subjective, social, all-too human endeavor to understand the world. Operates using paradigms, which are accepted methods of investigation and legitimate subjects of investigation. So, for example, in Psychology, here is what we study (stimulus control of behavior) and here is how we do it (bar-pressing rats on a various schedules of reinforcement) or memory using paired-associates learning tests, etc.

4. Popper vs. Kuhn Popper sees science as less bounded than Kuhn, more creative, not as many restrictions on proper methods of testing, especially during normal science phase. Popper sees objective truth toward which science strives, Kuhn does not. Scientific progress for Kuhn is simply a more inclusive paradigm overthrowing another. It explains more, but it is still bounded by subjective, social/human factors.

5. Psychology as science accepts determinism: behavior can be understood and predicted based on controlling factors. These factors include, physical determinants: biology (genes, physiology), environment (rearing, nutrition, rewards/punishments, education, etc), and sociocultural (culture, customs, social beliefs, etc.); and psychical determinants (wishes, desires, rational analysis, emotions, goals, values, i.e. mental processes)

6. Forms of Determinism Indeterminism = behavior is determined but all causes cannot be known Nondeterminism = free will exists so human behavior is not full determined (falls outside the purview of science) Hard determinism = no free will, illusion, no real responsibility for human actions Soft determinism= mental processes intervene between physical causes and behavior thus preserving responsibility because mental processes are not entirely outside of person’s control

7. Persistent questions in Psychology Mind/Body Problem: how can non-physical mind affect physical body? Answers: Materialism: it doesn’t, only matter exists, no mind, only brain Idealism: really the question is how can matter affect mind, since mind is the only thing that exists (Dali Lhama believes this, but no scientists do, note: both materialism and Idealism are monist positions) Dualism: two ultimate realities, mind and matter. But how to they interact?

8. Forms of Dualism Interactionist Dualism: they interaction but exactly how is not well understood. Evidence: some diseases are entirely or significantly caused by mental states. Emergentism: Unpredicted casual properties can emerge from interactions of matter (e.g. slipperiness of water, not predictable based on H2O, but has causal power). Similarly, brain states can produce mental states that have causal power (a positive attitude can aid in or bring about physical healing). Epiphenomenalism: impotent mind emerges from brain activity (shadow example) Psycho/physical parallelism: every event has correlated physical and mental effects. Ex: a sound vibrates the middle ear and calms the soul Pre-established harmony = God coordinates psycho/physical parallelism. Ex. A sound vibrates middle ear and God calms your soul or vice versa.

9. Persistent questions in Psychology Nativism vs. Empiricism: how much of human nature is inherited (genetically) and how much is the result of environmental experience? Relatedly, how much human knowledge is innate (an active mind organizing and categorizing experience) vs. how much is the result of experience (a passive mind registering sensory events). Rationalism vs. Irrationalism: Are humans primarily driven by rational processes (deliberation, weighing of consequences, etc) or by irrational processes (emotion, unconscious desires, etc.) Humans and other animals: How much can be learned about humans by studying other animals?

10. Persistent questions in Psychology Is there an objective reality out there? Naïve realism: what we see is what we get, sensory info provides an accurate depiction of reality. Reification: if we can label it is must exist. Is there a self that directs actions and organizes experience? Universalism vs. Relativism: Are there universal laws or Truths applicable to all people everywhere or is all law and truth human- made constructions? This mostly applies to morality, human behavior, etc. but some push it even further to include physical laws.