2. Chapter 22 Sustaining Wild Species Chapter 22 Sustaining Wild Species

3. The Story of Martha Oh high above the trees and the reeds like rainbows they landed soft as moonglow in greens and reds they fluttered past the windows ah but nobody cared or saw til the hungry came in crowds with their guns and dozers and soon the peace was over God what were they thinking of? Oh on and on til dreams come true you know a piece of us all goes with you Oh the birds went down they fell and they faded to the dozens Til in a Cincinnati Zoo was the last one Yes all that remained was the last with a name of Martha Very proud, very sad, but very wise Oh as the lines filed by there were few who cared or could be bothered how could anyone have treated you harder and it was all for a dollar or more Oh on and on til dreams come true you know a piece of us all goes with you Oh and surrounded there by some of whom wept around her in a corner of the cage they found her she went as soft as she came so shy til the last song oh the passenger pigeon was gone... John Harold

4. The last word in ignorance is the person who says of an animal or plant: “What good is it?...If the land mechanism as a whole is good, whether we understand it or not…Harmony with land is like harmony with a friend; you cannot cherish his right hand and chop off his left. Aldo Leopold

5. Key Concepts  Human effects on biodiversity  Importance of biodiversity  How human activities affect wildlife  Management of wildlife

6. 22.1 Human Impacts on Biodiversity A. Factors that increase biodiversity Physically diverse habitat Physically diverse habitat Small - moderate environmental disturbances Small - moderate environmental disturbances Evolution Evolution

7. B. Factors that decrease biodiversity Environmental stress Environmental stress Large disturbances Large disturbances Extreme conditions Extreme conditions Limitation of essential resources Limitation of essential resources Introduction of alien species Introduction of alien species Geographic Isolation Geographic Isolation

8. Facts About Humans and the Earth Have degraded 50% of the earths surface Have degraded 50% of the earths surface Use waste or destroy 40% of the lands productivity Use waste or destroy 40% of the lands productivity

9. Human Impacts on Extinction Extinction rate is 1000 x faster than it would be without human involvement Extinction rate is 1000 x faster than it would be without human involvement (Expected to grow to 10,000 x) (Expected to grow to 10,000 x)

10. Projected Status of Biodiversity 1998–2018 Critical and endangeredThreatenedStable or intact ANTARCTICA NORTH AMERICA EUROPE AFRICA ASIA SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA Pacific Ocean Antarctic Circle Pacific Ocean Tropic Of Cancer Tropic Of Capricorn Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean 150°90°60°E0°30°W90°120°150°0° 60° 30°N 30°S 60° Arctic Circle Fig. 22.3, p. 552

11. Human Impacts on Extinction

12. Food supply and demand Freshwater supply and demand Forest product supply and demand Climate change Biodiversity loss Habitat change Changes in transpiration and albedo Loss of crop genetic diversity Reduced resistance to change Loss and fragmentation of habitat CO 2 emission Habitat change and fragmentation of habitat Changes in precipitation and temperature Water availability Water use and pollution and soil nutrient loss CO 2, CH 4, N 2 O emissions Erosion, pollution, and changes in water flow Loss and fragmentation of habitat Loss and fragmentation of habitat Deforestation Changes in water supply and temperature Changes in water supply and temperature Fig. 22.2, p. 551

13. Biodiversity in the USA 539 species have become extinct 539 species have become extinct Mostly due to habitat lossMostly due to habitat loss 1/3 of plant and animal species may suffer premature extinction 1/3 of plant and animal species may suffer premature extinction

14. 67% Secure or apparently secure 1% Other 16% Vulnerable 8% Imperiled 7% Critically imperiled 1% Probably extinct Fig. 22.4, p. 554

15. How Serious is a Loss of Biodiversity? Some argue that the threat is exaggerated… Some argue that the threat is exaggerated… 1. We don’t know how many species there are 2. We don’t know the true value of all species in ecosystems 3. Estimates are based on models that lack data

16. Should We Focus on Sustaining Species or Ecosystems? A. Ecosystem Approach Major goal is to assure that there is enough protected land and water to provide habitat. Major goal is to assure that there is enough protected land and water to provide habitat. B. Species-by-Species Approach Identify most at-risk species Identify most at-risk species Understand the species Understand the species Focus on protecting them Focus on protecting them

17. The Species ApproachThe Ecosystem Approach Goal Protect species from premature extinction Strategies Identify endangered species Protect their critical habitats Tactics Legally protect endangered species Manage habitat Propagate endangered species in captivity Reintroduce species into suitable habitats Goal Protect populations of species in their natural habitats Strategy Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems Tactics Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action Eliminate or reduce populations of alien species from protected areas Manage protected areas to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems

18. 22.2 Three Types of Extinction A. Local Extinction: Species is no longer found in an area it once was, but it is found in other areas

19. B. Ecological Extinction: So few that it can no longer play its ecological role So few that it can no longer play its ecological role

20. C. Biological Extinction: Species is no longer found anywhere on the earth Species is no longer found anywhere on the earth Biological Extinction is Forever Biological Extinction is Forever Irreversible loss of genes Irreversible loss of genes

21. What are Endangered and Threatened Species? Endangered: So few individual survivors that the species can become extinct over all or part of its range So few individual survivors that the species can become extinct over all or part of its range Threatened or Vulnerable: Still abundant in its natural range and may become endangered Still abundant in its natural range and may become endangered

23. Threatened and Endangered Species of Pennsylvania Links: PA GAME COMMISSION PA GAME COMMISSION PA GAME COMMISSION PA GAME COMMISSION PA FISH AND BOAT COMMISSION PA FISH AND BOAT COMMISSION PA FISH AND BOAT COMMISSION PA FISH AND BOAT COMMISSION US FISH AN WILDLIFE SERVICE US FISH AN WILDLIFE SERVICE US FISH AN WILDLIFE SERVICE US FISH AN WILDLIFE SERVICE

24. Rare Species: Naturally small populations due to limited geographic range Naturally small populations due to limited geographic range Locally depleted by human activities Locally depleted by human activities Vulnerable to extinction Vulnerable to extinction

25. How Do Biologists Estimate Extinction Rates? Species-area relationship… The number of species increases with the size of the area The number of species increases with the size of the area On average… On average… A 90% loss of habitat results in 50% loss of species A 90% loss of habitat results in 50% loss of species

26. High Low HighArea occupied Number of species Area studied, tropical forest Estimated curve, tropical forest Well studied, temperate forest Fig. 22.9, p. 558

27. CharacteristicExamples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist) Specialized niche Narrow distribution Feeds at high trophic level Fixed migratory patterns Rare Commercially valuable Large territories Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Many island species, elephant seal, desert pupfish Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles Many island species, African violet, some orchids Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther

28. Background vs. Mass Extinction Background Extinction- A small, naturally occurring, low rate extinction. Fossil records show 1-14 species a year (Approximately 1 species / million) 0.0001% per year

29. B. Mass Extinction- A rise above the background rate, often catastrophic and global. Estimated to be five in the past 500 million years

30. Geological Periods Millions of years ago Number of families of marine animals Mass extinctions 800 600 400 200 0 570505438360286208144650 Cambrian Ordovician Silurian Devonian Carboniferous Permian Triassic Jurassic Cretaceous Tertiary Quaternary ? 4082452 Fig. 22.10, p. 558

31. Extinction of the Dinosaurs

32. Concerns of a New Extinction Crisis 2/3 of mammals and plants will be extinct by the end of the century 2/3 of mammals and plants will be extinct by the end of the century Approx. 14,000 species go extinct each year Approx. 14,000 species go extinct each year Thousands of times faster than the natural rate Thousands of times faster than the natural rate

33. How is Today’s Extinction Crisis Different? Massive loss in a few decades as opposed to thousands – millions of years Massive loss in a few decades as opposed to thousands – millions of years We are completely destroying habitat that served as the basis of recovery We are completely destroying habitat that served as the basis of recovery

34. 22.3 Why Care About Biodiversity? The Earth’s Overall Biodiversity has 2 Types of Value: 1. Instrumental 1. Instrumental Value: Usefulness Usefulness to humans 2. Intrinsic 2. Intrinsic Value: Because Because they exist regardless of their value

35. Value of Nature InstrumentalIntrinsic Utilitarian Non-utilitarian (human centered) (species or ecosystem centered) Goods Ecological services Information Recreation Existence Aesthetic Bequest Fig. 22.11, p. 561

36. Instrumental Values Utilitarian (Use) -Economic goods -Ecological Services -Information-Recreation Non-Utilitarian (Nonuse) -Existence-Aesthetic-Bequest

37. Rauvolfia Southeast Asia Tranquilizer, high blood pressure medication Europe Digitalis for heart failure Foxglove Pacific yew Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer South America Quinine for malaria treatment Cinchona Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Rosy periwinkle

38. Overfishing Habitat loss Habitat degradation Introducing nonnative species Commercial hunting and poaching Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants Predator and pest control Pollution Climate change Basic Causes Population growth Rising resource use No environmental accounting Poverty Fig. 22.13, p. 564 Causes of Premature Extinction

39. 22.4 Causes of Premature Extinction 1. Habitat loss, degradation, and depletion -In U.S. the major disturbances are… -In U.S. the major disturbances are… *agriculture/grazing *agriculture/grazing *development *development *outdoor recreation *outdoor recreation *pollution *pollution

40. Habitat Fragmentation –A large, continuous area of habitat is reduced in area and divided into a patchwork of isolated areas.

41. Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today (34,000–54,000 left) Fig. 22.14d, p. 565

42. Indian Tiger Range 100 years ago Range today (about 2,300 left) Fig. 22.14a, p. 565

43. Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today (about 2,400 left) Fig. 22.14b, p. 565

44. African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today (600,000 left)

45. 2. Harm by Nonnative Species -U.S. has 50,000 Nonnative species -49% of 1,200 endangered and threatened species are threatened by nonnative species -Nonnative species fall into two categories… Deliberately Introduced A. Deliberately Introduced Accidentally Introduced B. Accidentally Introduced

46. A. Deliberately Introduced -Supply 98% of U.S. food -Can have detrimental affects w/no predators, parasites, or competition to control numbers.

47. KUDZU VINE: FERAL CATS

48. B. Accidentally Introduced Many times they are transported in shipping products Brown Tree Snake Fire Ants

49. 1918 Fig. 22.18, p. 570 2000 Expansion of the fire ant in southern states.

50. Formosia termite Tiger Mosquito

51. Characteristics of Successful Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r- selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Characteristics of Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional species Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities -Control of Nonnative species begins with identifying characteristics that allow them to succeed

52. 3. Commercial Hunting/Poaching 3. Commercial Hunting/Poaching -International trade of wild plant and animals is worth $10-$20 billion dollars per year. -1/4 of total is in illegal sales Gorilla - $150,000 Chimp - $50,000 Rhino Horn - $13,000/lb. Bushmeat - $150 million /yr. http://cbs5.com/seenon/consumer/bushmeat.africa.illegal.2.453673.html

56. This family of Gorillas was Slaughtered for Bush meat

57. Orphans of the Slaughter

59. Gorilla Hand: A Delicacy

62. Poachers Use a Chain Saw to Remove a Rhino Horn

66. POACHING A CHICKEN

67. Ivory Trade

68. Profiting from Safaris

69. A Controversial Management Practice

70. 4. Exotic Pets -25 Million U.S. households have exotic birds -Leads to a loss of Ecotourism -Use of Cyanide to capture tropical fish -Orchids and Cacti for decoration

73. 5. Climate Change and Pollution -Increase in global warming -Introduction of pesticides/herbicides, etc. 6. Loss of Genetic Diversity -Decreased ability to reproduce and adapt to changing conditions Founder EffectInbreeding Genetic DriftBottleneck Effect

74. 22.5 Solutions to Protecting Species A. International Treaties 1. CITES (1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) 800 species that can’t be traded 800 species that can’t be traded 29,000 species regulated since they are at risk of becoming threatened 29,000 species regulated since they are at risk of becoming threatened

75. LIMITED SUCCESS for CITES Difficult to enforce Difficult to enforce Small fines for those convicted Small fines for those convicted Countries can exempt themselves Countries can exempt themselves Many countries that have not signed CITES Many countries that have not signed CITES

76. 2. Convention on Biological Diversity (RIO 1992) Legally binds governments to reverse the loss of biodiversity a. Adopt national diversity action plans b. Establish system of protected areas c. Use resources in a sustainable way d. Ensure the safe use of biotechnology USA did not sign the treaty

77. B. National Laws 1. LACEY ACT 1900: Prohibits transport of dead animals across state lines without a permit Prohibits transport of dead animals across state lines without a permit 2. ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT: Illegal to import or trade any product from an endangered or threatened species… Illegal to import or trade any product from an endangered or threatened species… Unless used for scientific purposes Unless used for scientific purposes

78. Who Determines What is Protected? National Marine Fisheries Service: National Marine Fisheries Service: List and identify Ocean Species U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Identify all other endangered species * Fines and imprisonment can be imposed to ensure the protection of endangered species

79. Concentration of rare species LowModerateHigh Top Six Hot Spots 1 Hawaii 2 San Francisco Bay area 3 Southern Appalachians 4 Death Valley 5 Southern California 6 Florida Panhandle 4 5 2 6 3 1 Fig. 22.23, p. 575 6 Hotspots for Endangered Species

80. What Have Land Owners Done to Avoid the ESA? Some land owners have managed their land so less endangered species use it Some land owners have managed their land so less endangered species use it

81. Should We Weaken the ESA Concerns about the economic impacts… 1. Make protection on private land voluntary 2. Have the gov’t pay for lost land 3. Make it harder to list new species 4. Give the secretary of the interior the right to allow a species to become extinct 5. Can allow exemptions to states 6. Prohibit public lawsuits

82. Should the ESA be Strengthened? 0.05% of projects have been blocked by ESA 0.05% of projects have been blocked by ESA The act does allow for economic concerns The act does allow for economic concerns “God Squad” – any federal project can be exempted from ESA to prevent economic loss “God Squad” – any federal project can be exempted from ESA to prevent economic loss Government will bargain with HCP’s Government will bargain with HCP’s

83. Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) Used as a compromise between the interests of land owners and the threatened species Used as a compromise between the interests of land owners and the threatened species Owners are allowed to destroy some habitat or endangered species on private land… Owners are allowed to destroy some habitat or endangered species on private land… In exchange for taking measures to protect the species In exchange for taking measures to protect the species

84. Protective Measures of HCP’s Set aside a part of the habitat as a preserve Set aside a part of the habitat as a preserve Pay to relocate to a suitable habitat Pay to relocate to a suitable habitat Pay the government to buy suitable habitat elsewhere. Pay the government to buy suitable habitat elsewhere. What are the concerns with this type of plan? What are the concerns with this type of plan?

85. Removing Barriers of Protection Safe Harbor Agreement: Land owners voluntarily restore habitat on their land Land owners voluntarily restore habitat on their land Candidate Conservation Agreement: Landowners volunteer to take steps to help declining populations not yet listed Landowners volunteer to take steps to help declining populations not yet listed

86. Fig. 22.24, p. 576

87. Should We Try to Protect all Species? Can’t possibly save all Can’t possibly save all Focus on… Focus on… 1. Most likely to succeed 2. Ones with the greatest amount of ecological value 3. The most useful in medicine * FOCUS ON KEYSTONE SPECIES

88. Exploring the Diversity of Life

89. Extinction Case Study: 5 Elephants in Africa

90. Biome% of Area Disturbed Temperate broadleaf forests Temperate evergreen forests Temperate grasslands Mixed mountain systems Tropical dry forests Subtropical and temperate rain forests Cold deserts and semidesert Mixed island systems Warm deserts and semideserts Tropical humid forests Tropical grasslands Temperate Boreal forests Tundra 94% 72% 71% 70% 67% 55% 53% 44% 37% 26% 18% 0.7% Fig. 22.15, p. 566

91. Type of Nonnative OrganismAnnual Losses and damages Crop disease Crop weeds Rats Feral cats and outdoor pet cats Crop insects Livestock diseases Forest insects and diseases Zebra mussels Common pigeon Formosan termite Fishes Asian clam Feral pigs Starlings Fire ant $23.5 billion $19 billion $17 billion $14 billion $9 billion $4.8 billion $3 billion $1.1 billion $0.8 billion $0.6 billion Fig. 22.16, p. 566

92. Fig. 22.19, p. 570 Characteristics of Successful Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Characteristics of Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional species Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities

93. Fig. 22.25, p. 581 North American-South American flyways European-African flyways Asian flyways

94. Estimation of Extinction Risks 1. Population Viability Analysis (PVA) Risk assessment with math and stats Risk assessment with math and stats 2. Minimal Viable Population (MVP) Smallest # of individuals necessary to ensure the survival of a population Smallest # of individuals necessary to ensure the survival of a population 3. Minimum Dynamic Area (MDA) Minimum area of habitat needed to maintain the MVP Minimum area of habitat needed to maintain the MVP