1. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure Both atoms and molecules are quantum systems We need a method of describing molecules in a quantum mechanical way so that we can predict structure and properties The method we use is the Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals where we can use the properties of atoms to predict the properties of molecules.

2. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure We combine atoms to form molecules by considering the phase of the atomic orbitals we are using We represent the phase via the shading we give the orbital. The phase represents the sign of the wavefunction

3. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure We combine atoms to form molecules by considering the phase of the atomic orbitals we are using The phase represents the sign of the wavefunction We represent the phase via the shading we give the orbital.

4. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure For an s orbital, the orbital has the same phase everywhere: For a p orbital, there is a change in the sign of the wavefunction across the nodal plane: 2p orbital, n = 2, l = 1, m l = -1 1s orbital, n = 1, l = 0

5. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure Consider two H atoms (1s 1 ) coming together from infinite separation. There are two possibilities: 1The wavefunctions are in phase 2The wavefunctions are not in phase

6. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure Case 1: The wavefunctions are in phase The atoms move together and the electron waves overlap with the same phase, producing constructive interference and a build up of electron density between the nuclei The energy of the system drops and we form a bond

7. Chemistry 120 r = 8 Å r = 7 Å r = 6 Å r = 5 Å r = 0.75 Å r = 1 Å r = 2 Å r = 3 Å

8. Chemistry 120 Molecular Structure Case 2: The wavefunctions are out of phase The atoms move together and the electron waves have opposite phase. The electron waves overlap producing destructive interference and electron density between the nuclei is reduced. The energy of the system rises and we have an antibonding situation

9. Chemistry 120 r = 8 Å r = 7 Å r = 5 Å r = 4 Å r = 0.75 Å r = 1 Å r = 2 Å r = 3 Å

10. Chemistry 120 BondingAntibonding Two atoms with wavefunctions in phase overlap with constructive interference. Electron density increases between the nuclei and the overall energy decreases. When the wavefunctions are of opposite phase, the electron density between the nuclei decreases due to destructive interference. The energy of the system rises and we have an antibonding situation

11. Chemistry 120 Bonding Antibonding Here we see 2 2s orbitals in the bonding and antibonding regimes In the antibonding regime, there is no build-up of density between the nuclei at any separation. How do we represent this energetically?

12. Chemistry 120 Bond length at the minimum energy Bonding Antibonding Energies and phase

13. Chemistry 120 Bond length at the minimum energy Bonding Antibonding Energies and phase For the antibonding interaction, there is no minimum in energy at any distance For the bonding interaction, there is a minimum. The distance is the bond length and the energy is the bond energy

14. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds  bonds are in general stronger than  bonds and can be formed from either s or p orbitals:

15. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds  bonds have no nodal plane that contains the two nuclei. The  * antibonding orbital has a nodal plane between the two nuclei

16. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds  bonds have a nodal plane that contains both nuclei, The  * antibonding orbital also has a plane between the nuclei

17. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds These ,  bonding orbitals and  *,  * antibonding orbitals are the orbitals that are used to bind all simple organic molecules together. We can also describe the bonding in diatomic molecules important models for larger organic systems

18. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds To describe the bonding in the diatomic molecules such as O 2, N 2 and X 2 (X = F, Cl, Br and I), we use both the s orbitals and the p orbitals on the two atoms as a basis set - the palette of atomic orbitals from which we will build the molecular orbitals. The energies of the two different l states, s and p, are slightly different in polyelectronic atoms.

19. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds The s orbitals and the p orbitals appear as follows

20. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds We arrange the atoms along one of the axes for convenience and so the first pair of orbitals we construct are the s  and s  * orbitals from the s orbitals on the atoms.

21. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds We now us the higher energy p orbitals to construct p  and p  orbitals

22. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds The complete molecular orbital diagram for all the diatomic molecules from Li 2 to N 2

23. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds The complete molecular orbital diagram for all the diatomic molecules from Li 2 to N 2 As each molecule has a different number of electrons, Li 2 2 Be 2 4 B 2 6 C 2 8 N 2 10 O 2 12 F 2 14 Ne 2 16

24. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds Li 2 2 Be 2 4 B 2 6 C 2 8 N 2 10 O 2 12 F 2 14 Ne 2 16 We can write the electronic structure of each molecule by placing electron pairs into the orbitals.

25. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds Li 2 2 Be 2 4 B 2 6 C 2 8 N 2 10 O 2 12 F 2 14 Ne 2 16 Something peculiar happens after N 2 Recall that as the charge on the nucleus increases, the orbitals become more stabilized and the electrons become more strongly bound.

26. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds Li 2 2 Be 2 4 B 2 6 C 2 8 N 2 10 O 2 12 F 2 14 Ne 2 16 This happens by different amounts, depending on the orbital. After N 2 (10 e - ), the ordering of the orbitals derived from p change their order in the molecule

27. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds For N 2 (10 e - ), the ordering is this For O 2 (12 e - ), the ordering is this

28. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds This is an example of configurational interaction Each electron moves in the field of the other electrons. If the energies of the two molecular orbitals are sufficiently close and the nodal properties are correct, molecular orbitals will interact and shuffle their energies in the molecule. This causes the  orbitals to change their energetic ordering but only when the nuclear charge is high enough to force the electrons close in energy.

29. Chemistry 120 Organic Structure and Bonding  bonds and  bonds Configurational interaction Each electron moves in the field of the other electrons. If the energies of the two molecular orbitals are sufficiently close and the nodal properties are correct, molecular orbitals will interact and shuffle their energies in the molecule. This causes the  orbitals to change their energetic ordering but only when the nuclear charge is high enough to force the electrons close in energy.

30. Chemistry 120

31. Chemistry 120

32. Chemistry 120