1. Finish: How To Build Strong Memories Then: Consolidation of Memories Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 5/6 /2015: Lecture 06-3 This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that were used to create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. If necessary, you can disable the macros without any change to the presentation.

2. Outline Testing strengthens memory Organization promotes future retrieval Spaced practice is better than massed practice Memory consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 2 Goldstein's Recommendations for Effective Study Habits

3. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 3 Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits The Testing Effect Next

4. The Testing Effect Testing memories strengthens memories, i.e., it increases the likelihood of retrieving the memories at a later time. ♦ This is true regardless of whether the subject succeeds in retrieving the information at the time of testing. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 4 Roediger & Karpicke Experiment that Demonstrates the Testing Effect

5. Testing Group Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 5 Figure 7.6 Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study) Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break) Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes. Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes. Both groups get a recall test following a delay (5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week) Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study Read passage Solve math problems Recall test Reread passage Delay Recall test Rereading Group 5 minutes 2 days, or 1 week 7 minutes 2 minutes 7 minutes Testing Improves Later Retrieval

6. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 6 Figure 7.6 Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study) Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break) Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes. Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes. Both groups get a recall test following a delay (5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week) Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study Read passage Solve math problems Recall test Reread passage Delay Recall test Testing Group Rereading Group 5 minutes 2 days, or 1 week 7 minutes 2 minutes 7 minutes Testing Improves Later Retrieval

7. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 7 Results for the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Study Rereading produces better memory after 5 minute delay. Testing produces better memory after 2 day & 1 week delay. The superiority of recall test increases over time. Why does the recall test produce better memory (more successful retrieval) after the longer delays? Why Does Testing Have Greater Advantage at Longer Delays? 5 minutes 2 days 1 week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled

8. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 8 Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays? Explanation 1: Rereading the material strengthens the episodic memory for the experience of studying the target material. Testing strengthens the semantic memory for associations between the target material and other knowledge. Testing also strengthen priming between associated ideas and the target material. Episodic memories lose strength faster than implicit memories and semantic memories. The Spacing Effect 5 minutes 2 days 1 week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Typical mistake: People think that the primary goal of study is to encode the information.

9. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 9 Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays? Explanation 2: Retrieval is a mental skill – it improves with practice. Attempting to retrieve information X helps you develop better retrieval cues for X. Attempting to retrieve information X will consolidate the memory of X. Organizing the Material Increases the Chance of Future Retrieval 5 minutes 2 days 1 week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Typical mistake: People think that the primary goal of study is to encode the information.

10. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 10 Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits Organization Promotes Stronger Memory Next

11. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 11 Organizing the Information at Encoding Improves Later Retrieval Principle: It is easier to remember information that is organized in some reasonable way than information that is disorganized. Bower, Clark, Lesgold, & Winzenz (1969): Words that are organized into categories are remembered much better than the same words in a disorganized list. Why Organizing Promotes Future Retrieval

12. Why Organization Promotes Future Retrieval Professors will tell you: “Try to understand the material! Don’t just memorize it.” The effort to the studied material has mnemonic value because: (i) Organizing the material causes the subject to chunk the material. It is easier to retrieve a few chunks than many separate pieces of information. (ii) Organizing the material generally requires linking it to other knowledge. These links serve as retrieval cues. (iii) Generating your own organization is more beneficial than having someone else give you an organization. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 12 The Spacing Effect

13. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 13 The Spacing Effect Massed practice: Many trials with the same stimuli are undertaken without interruption. E.g., study for 2 hours straight. Distributed practice: Trials with the same stimuli are separated by periods with other activities. Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else), Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else), Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else), Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else). Spacing Effect: Distributed practice produces stronger memories than massed practice. Why does the spacing effect occur? Overview Diagram: Effective Study Methods

14. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 14 FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING & RETRIEVAL Create Connections Active Memory Organization Interactive Imagery (boat-tree) Link to self (self-reference effect) Generate related ideas Testing Recall by groups (spontaneous grouping of fruit, etc.) Present in an organized way (“tree” experiment) Meaningful framework (“balloon” experiment) Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.5, p. 184 Consolidation – What Is It?

15. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 15 Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits Organization Promotes Stronger Memory Next

16. Illusions of Learning Illusions of learning - some study habits will give you a false impression of how effectively you have learned something. Immediate testing versus delayed testing. ♦ Immediate testing: Test immediately after a period of study. ♦ Delayed testing: Test after a delay of 20 minutes. ♦ Students who engage in immediate testing feel more confident that they have learned the material than students who engage in delayed testing. ♦ Students who engage in immediate testing later perform worse than students who engage in delayed testing. Rereading the material give students greater confidence that they know the material then testing, but it actually leads to lower performance. Goldstein has other examples. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 16 Consolidation of Memories

17. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 17 Consolidation of Memories Recently created memories are typically fragile. ♦ Without additional retrievals, they are often too weak to retrieve. ♦ A concussion soon after learning can cause permanent loss of a memory. Fragility of new memories implies that it takes cognitive processing after the initial experience to create a strong memory. Consolidation is the process by which a memory is transformed from an unstable state to a more permanent state. What Is Happening During Consolidation?

18. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 18 What Is Happening During Memory Consolidation? Changes are happening at two levels: Synaptic Consolidation: Repeated experience causes changes at the level of the synapse. ♦ These changes occur quickly, over a matter of minutes. Systems Consolidation: Repeated retrievals cause changes in the organization of neural circuits that represent memories. ♦ These changes occur gradually, over days, months or even years. Synaptic Changes During Learning – Long-Term Potentiation

19. Synaptic Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 19 Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. Same Diagram with Emphasis Rectangles 1 st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194

20. Synaptic Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 20 1 st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. What Kind of Structural Changes Occur at the Synapse?

21. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 21 System Consolidation: The Time Course of Memory Formation Figure 7.15 (p. 195) attempts to explain the role of the hippocampus in the encoding and consolidation of memories. Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Left Hippocampus Cortical Areas Hippocampus

22. Cortical Areas Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 22 The Time Course of Memory Formation Initial Encoding of Current Experience Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Middle

23. Hippocampus Cortical Areas Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 23 The Time Course of Memory Formation Retrieval of Episodic Memory Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Right

24. Hippocampus Cortical Areas Hippocampus Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 24 The Time Course of Memory Formation Retrieval (After Much Learning) of Episodic Memory Transition to Diagrams That Show the Same Process But With Different Graphics

25. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 25 The next slides display the same ideas as the preceding slides, but with more informative graphics. Explanation of Consolidation in terms of Brain Diagrams

26. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 26 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086). 1: Processing of current information activates different brain areas in occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal cortex. 2: Multiple brain activations spread to hippocampus (convergence zone). Somehow, hippocampus binds multimodal inputs together and encodes long-term memory. Event or episode Diagram of Brain Activity During Retrieval Encoding Event or episode

27. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 27 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086). 3: At time of recall, partial cues stimulate some brain areas that were also activated at encoding. 5: Somehow, the hippocampus triggers pattern completion (partial reactivation of original activation pattern). Same Diagram with Statement of Recapitulation Hypothesis 4: Activation spreads to the hippocampus. Retrieval Partial cue

28. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 28 This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website (http://vig.prenhall.com) for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN 9780131825086). Reactivation Before & After Consolidation Retrieval Reactivation Hypothesis: (Goldstein, p. 195) Episodic retrieval involves reinstatement of activations that were present during encoding. Hippocampus plays an important role in reactivation.

29. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 29 Retrieval before consolidation has been completed. Retrieval after consolidation has been completed. Standard Model of Consolidation: Reactivation Before & After Consolidation Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation

30. Multiple trace model is opposed to the standard model of consolidation. According to this model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote episodic memories as well as recent episodic memories. Remember/know distinction ♦ Hippocampus seems to be active during retrieval of remote episodic memories that the subjects "remembers", but the memories that the subjects "know" are true. ♦ Intuitive ideas: Over time, memories can become facts (as opposed to retrieval of experiences). Retrieval of facts may not involve the hippocampus to the same degree as retrieval of experiences. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 30 Consolidation & Reconsolidation

31. Fact to be discussed in subsequent lecture: ♦ When a memory is retrieved, it is vulnerable to change. ♦ After retrieval of a memory, it is necessary to store the memory again to return it to a permanent state. Consolidation refers to processes that change an initially encoded memory into a permanent memory. Reconsolidation refers to processes that restore a memory to a more permanent form after it has been retrieved. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 31 Sometimes consolidation & reconsolidation are referred to together as “consolidation.” Role of Sleep in Consolidation

32. Interestingly Enough,..... Sleep (dreaming?) plays a functional role in promoting consolidation. ♦ Rat brain cells that fire together while exploring a location also show increased firing during subsequent sleep. Not true of other cells that did not fire during exploration. ♦ Disruption of dreaming seems to disrupt consolidation. ♦ Similar effects with humans who are learning to play tetris. Some evidence suggests that if a subject expects to be tested on Topic A but not on Topic B, then sleep (possibly, dreaming) enhances future memory of Topic A more than Topic B. Role of sleep in consolidation is not understood, but there seems to be a significant relationship between sleep and consolidation. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 32 Summary of Standard Model of Consolidation - END

33. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 33 Summary re Standard Model of Consolidation Consolidation & reconsolidation...... long-term memory representations become more stable over time;... hippocampus plays a central role in retrieval of incompletely consolidated memories;... over time, retrieval of memories becomes independent from the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe activity. END