1. Chapter Six: The Media

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 2 People, Government and Communications Mass Media: the means employed in mass communication; often divided into print media and broadcast media –Print Media: communicate information through the publication of words on paper; daily newspapers and popular magazines –Broadcast Media: communicate information electronically, through sounds and images; radio, television and the Internet Other mass media include recordings and motion pictures

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 3 The Development of the Mass Media in the United States Newspapers –On the decline since the 1960s, pressured by radio and television –Daily circulation has declined almost 50% since 1950 –Daily newspaper with largest circulation: USA Today (2.3 million copies)

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 4 The Development of the Mass Media in the United States Magazines –Differ from newspapers in both frequency and nature of their coverage –Have relatively small circulations and select readerships –Most likely to influence attentive policy elites: leaders who follow news in specific policy areas –Elites then share their information with their followers in the two-step flow of communication –Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report have the largest news magazine circulations in the U.S.

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 5 The Development of the Mass Media in the United States Radio –Made broadcast journalists into household names –“Talk radio” is now its most salient function

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 6 The Development of the Mass Media in the United States Television –In 2004, 98% of U.S. households had television –1200 commercial and 300 public television stations –Television claims by far the biggest news audience of all mass media

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 7 The Development of the Mass Media in the United States The Internet –January 1993  only 50 web sites –Now  over 350,000 sites and over a billion Web users –Private citizens have begun their own web sites on politics and public affairs: blogs

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 8 Audiences of Selected Media Sources

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 9 Private Ownership of the Media Most Americans would regard government ownership of the media as an unacceptable threat to freedom The Consequences of Private Ownership –Private ownership ensures that news is selected for its audience appeal Media are dependent on advertising revenue to cover costs and make a profit Advertising rates are tied to audience size

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 10 Private Ownership of the Media Entertainment content of mass media in the U.S. vastly overshadows the news content –Newsworthiness: the degree to which a news story is important enough to be covered in the mass media –Market-driven journalism: both reporting and running commercials geared to a target audience defined by demographic characteristics

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 11 Private Ownership of the Media Local news epitomizes market-driven journalism National news broadcasts have suffered severe loss of audience –The networks have succumbed to providing infotainment –Infotainment: a mix of information and diversion oriented to personalities or celebrities, not linked to the day’s events, and usually unrelated to public affairs or policy; often called “soft news.”

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 12 The Concentration of Private Ownership A major trend toward concentrated ownership of the media exists –Particularly acute problem in the newspaper industry –Increases the risk that a few owners could control the news flow to promote their own political interests –Does not seem to be a problem in the television industry, however; chains sometimes own television stations in different cities, and ownership can extend across different media

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 13 Government Regulation of the Media Technical and Ownership Regulations –The Federal Radio Act: declared that the public owned the airwaves and private broadcasters could use them only by obtaining a license from the Federal Radio Commission

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 14 Government Regulation of the Media Federal Communications Act of 1934: created the Federal Communications Commission –Federal Communications Commission: an independent federal agency that regulates interstate and international communication by radio, television, telephone, telegraph, cable and satellite –Was in force until 1996

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 15 Government Regulation of the Media The Telecommunications Act of 1996 –Relaxed or scrapped limitations on media ownership –Set no national limits for radio ownership and relaxed local limits –Lifted rate regulations for cable systems and allowed cross-ownership of cable and telephone companies –Allowed local and long-distance telephone companies to compete with one another and to sell television services

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 16 Government Regulation of the Media Regulation of Content –1 st Amendment prohibits Congress from abridging the freedom of the press “Press” has come to mean all media Exception to press freedom: publication of strategic information during wartime

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 17 Government Regulation of the Media Broadcast media have been subject to additional regulation because they use public airwaves –Fairness Doctrine: obligated broadcaster to provide fair coverage of all views –Equal Opportunities Rule: required broadcasters to make time available under the same conditions to all candidates for public office

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 18 Government Regulation of the Media Those rules have been rescinded –Reasonable Access Rule: required stations to make their facilities available for expression of conflicting views –Fairness Doctrine was repealed in 1987 –Equal Opportunities and Reasonable Access rules were struck down in 2000 to further deregulate the media

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 19 Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System Journalists consider “news” as an important event that has happened within the past twenty-four hours. Reporting the News –Washington has the largest press corps in the world –Correspondents rely heavily on information received from the president’s staff and from congressional offices –C-SPAN televises House and Senate proceedings –Selected reporters occasionally benefit from information “leaks” –“Pack journalism”: the tendency of journalists to adopt similar viewpoints toward the news

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 20 Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System Interpreting and Presenting the News –Gatekeepers: media executives, news editors, and prominent reporters who direct the flow of news. Time limitations place especially severe constraints on television news broadcasting –Personification to gain audience appeal leads to focus on the presidency and distortion of the character of Congress –Horse race journalism: election coverage by the mass media that focuses on which candidate is ahead rather than on issues –Media event: a situation that is so “newsworthy” that the mass media are compelled to cover it; candidates in elections often create such situations –Half of Americans are news “grazers”: those who check the news from time to time rather than read, watch or listen regularly –Television hypothesis: the belief that television is to blame for the low level of citizens’ knowledge about public affairs

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 21 Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System Influencing Public Opinion –The media may create public opinion simply by reporting events –Sometimes coverage may have a profound effect (e.g., the 2000 election)

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 22 Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System Setting the Political Agenda –Political agenda: a list of issues that need government attention –Can attract attention for buried issues (AIDS, global warming) and unpleasant issues (wrongful use of the death penalty) –Can keep issues high on the agenda even when not necessary (crime) –Media’s ability to define “the news” makes politicians eager to influence coverage –Mass media have become a network for communicating among attentive elites

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 23 Functions of the Mass Media for the Political System Socializing the Citizenry –Young people acquire political values through entertainment functions –Message is more mixed than it was –Some argue that the most important effect of the media is to help people accept “the way things are”

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 24 Evaluating the Media in Government Is Reporting Biased? –Reporters are charged with tilting stories in a liberal direction; media owners are suspected of preserving inequalities and reinforcing the existing social order Reporters tend to be more liberal than conservative, and the “tone” of network newscasts has tended to favor Democratic candidates for president Talk radio is overwhelmingly conservative Editors tend to be more conservative and function as gatekeepers, toning down reporters’ liberal leanings –Incumbents always receive much more news coverage than challengers –Different media may reflect different understandings of political issues

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 25 Evaluating the Media in Government Contributions to Democracy –Watchdog journalism: press scrutiny of public and business institutions, investigating and publicizing perceived misconduct –Media serve both majoritarian and pluralist models of democracy by improving the quality of available information –Media also reports public opinion

26. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.6 | 26 Evaluating the Media in Government Effects on Freedom, Order, Equality –Have played an important role in advancing equality, especially racial equality and women’s rights –Journalists resist government attempts to infringe on freedom of the press to promote order –Media’s ability to report whatever and whenever they wish erodes order