1. Colonialism

2. What is colonialism/imperialism? Waylen distinguishes ‘old’ and ‘new’ forms of colonialism Old colonialism – late 15 th and 16 th centuries New colonialism – 17 th and 18 th centuries Shift from indirect to direct political control by colonial state – 19 th century

3. Political control Established as political strategy and for economic gain Formalised rights of possession over colonies Established rights to extract and use raw materials, natural resources from colonies Facilitated development of capitalist industry at home, created markets for manufactured good in colonies

4. Changes Changes in land ownership Commercialised agriculture Taxation system introduced – wage labour, migration Restricted form of capitalism Women lost control over land, capital, their own and others’ labour

5. Effect on women 4 major perspectives on colonial history: Imperial history Nationalist perspectives Marxist and socialist perspectives Post-colonial studies

6. Themes of literature White western women’s involvement in imperialism Effect of imperialism on women in Britain Experiences of colonised women Men and colonial masculinities Colonialism and sexuality Gendered discourses of colonialism

7. Analytical questions How colonialism affected women and gender relations The gendering of colonial processes How women both supported and resisted colonialism Waylen argues that key concepts for analysis of imperialism besides class and gender are: ‘race’ and ethnicity; slavery; migration; sexuality, reproduction and miscegenation; changes to family relations, work relations and relations of power

8. Gender and imperialism Imperial history – history of imperialism written from point of view of colonisers Excludes women and gender Taken up by feminists and others looking at women’s position in the colonies Can be part of discourse that represents women in colonies as ‘backward’ in comparison with US and W.European women

9. Imperialism as progressive Driving force of historical progress Societies freed from traditional backwardness, become dynamic, modern Modernisation theory Oppression of women is part of ‘traditional backwardness’ Modern capitalist liberal democracy will liberate women from feudal bonds Colonised women have no agency

10. Nationalist perspectives Experience of colonised people central Imperial history racist and patronising, sees colonial power in positive light, devalues history and culture of colonised societies Pre-colonial societies not backward at all, dynamic and developing economically before European intervention Colonised peoples active agents of change in modernising world Women involved in independence movements

11. Nationalist perspectives on women Women’s position pre-colonialism no worse than under colonial rule Colonial power destroyed bases of women’s power Colonial powers didn’t liberate colonised women, inhibited indigenous processes of change Women agents of social change

12. Re-assessment In 1970s and 1980s re-assessment of nationalist period UN conference on women, first one in 1975 Nationalist struggles improved women’s situation Focus on economic and political rights Women’s personal position within family not addressed

13. Marxist/socialist perspectives Different groups benefitted from capitalist imperialism Upper and middle classes of indigenous population benefitted Alliance between colonisers and this section of population Subaltern status – lower class and other marginalised groups – resisted exploitation and oppression

14. Marxist analysis and women Colonialism erodes pre-capitalist sites of women’s power Introduces new forms of patriarchal control Changes in sexuality, marriage, family Forms of work, employment and labour Land use, property rights and inheritance British rulers in India, together with Brahmin elites in Kerala, destroyed matrilineal kinship system

15. Male alliances Women active resisting colonialism Hostility from male alliances of colonial authorities and indigenous elites Waylen: ‘new’ customary laws aimed at controlling women Collusion between 2 sources of male power Construction of tradition, new forms of control over women

16. Post-colonialism and gender Edward Said defined orientalism as a view which defined ‘the oriental’ and the Orient as: A biological inferior that is culturally backward, peculiar, and unchanging – to be depicted in dominating and sexual terms The feminine and weak Orient awaits the dominance of the West; it is a defenceless and unintelligent whole that exists for, and in terms of, its Western counterpart He called into question the underlying assumptions that form the foundation of Orientalist thinking

17. Gender and colonialist discourse Emerged from literary and cultural studies Perspective of imperial history a form of colonial discourse, legitimates colonial rule Colonial rule legitimated with reference to gender relations Gender relations in colonies (and contemporary societies such as Afghanistan) used as signifier of backward society

18. How useful is post-colonial approach? Waylen: legitimacy of colonialism problematic Legitimated through construction of knowledge about the colonised by the coloniser Power over had to be legitimised – minds of oppressed had to be colonised – persuasion important not only coercion

19. Post-colonial approach criticised Midgley: must go beyond discourse analysis Economic, political, military, social and administrative structures important Need to avoid relativism and challenge imperial history perspective Need to analyse material basis of power as well as language and symbols which legitimate power

20. Conclusions Colonialism was gendered, affected indigenous gendered power relations ‘Backwardness’ of indigenous peoples symbolised in gendered terms Capitalist imperialism worsened women’s position Post-colonialism gives voice to subaltern Gender important symbolically and materially Women active agents in bringing about social change