1. DEVELOPMENT

2. ‘Development’ is a concept which is contested both theoretically and politically, and is inherently both complex and ambiguous; ‘development’ is a multi- dimensional concept in its nature

3. In common parlance the term is used both frequently and rather casually: development studies, problems of development, developing countries, less developed countries, development cooperation, underdevelopment, development aid, development strategies, development policy and so forth. So what do we mean by ‘development’?

4. “development” is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable. When referring to a society or to a socio-economic system, “development” usually means improvement, either in the general situation of the system, or in some of its constituent elements.

5. In general terms, “development” means an “event constituting a new stage in a changing situation” or the process of change per se.

6. The idea of ‘development’ was invented in the post-Second World War world, to describe the process by which ‘backward’ countries would ‘catch up’ with the industrialized world – with the help of bilateral and multilateral aid and assistance.

7. There are three discernible definitions of ‘development’

8. 1.‘Development’ as a long-term process of structural societal transformation This view conceptualise development as a process of historical change. structural transformation and long-term transformations of economies and societies

9. The key characteristics of this perspective are that it is focused on processes of structural societal change, it is historical and it has a long-term outlook. This means that a major societal shift in one dimension, for example from a rural or agriculture based society to an urban or industrial-based society (what is sometimes called the shift from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ characteristics)

10. 2.Development’ as a short- to medium-term outcome of desirable targets Development as ‘a vision or measure of progressive change’ and ‘performance assessment’.

11. At its most basic level it is simply concerned with development as occurring in terms of a set of short- to medium-term ‘performance indicators’ – goals or outcomes – which can be measured and compared with targets (for example changes in poverty or income levels). The key feature of this second perspective is that it is focused on the outcomes of change so that it has a relatively short-term outlook,- ‘ahistorical’.

12. 3.‘Development’ as a dominant ‘discourse’ of Western modernity The third definition is based on the view that development has consisted of ‘bad’ change and ‘bad’ outcomes through the imposition of Western ethnocentric notions of development upon the Third World.

13. This is the ‘post-modern’ conceptualization of development (one might also refer to this as the ‘post-development’, ‘post- colonial’ or ‘post-structuralist’ position)

14. The ‘post-modern’ position is that ‘development’ is a ‘discourse’ (a set of ideas) that actually shapes and frames ‘reality’ and power relations. It does this because the ‘discourse’ values certain things over others.

15. For example, those who do not have economic assets are viewed as ‘inferior’ from a materialistic viewpoint. In terms of ‘real development’ there might be a new ‘discourse’ based on ‘alternative value systems’ which place a much higher value on spiritual or cultural assets, and within which those without significant economic assets would be regarded as having significant wealth.

16. The ‘post-modern’ approach draws upon, amongst others, Michel Foucault.The key element of this approach is that, for post- modernists, development (and poverty) are social constructs that do not exist in an objective sense outside of the discourse (a body of ideas, concepts and theory) and that one can only ‘know’ reality through discourse. In this approach there is no such thing as ‘objective reality’.

17. Post-modern approaches see poverty and development as socially constructed and embedded within certain economic epistemes which value some assets over others.

18. By revealing the situatedness of such interpretations of economy and poverty, post-modern approaches look for alternative value systems so that the poor are not stigmatized and their spiritual and cultural ‘assets’ are recognized.

19. Post-Modern Conceptualization(s) of Development Development has been a mechanism for the production and management of the Third World… … organizing the production of truth about the Third World… … Development colonized reality, it became reality… …(Escobar) Making and Unmaking of the Third World

20. Instead of the kingdom of abundance promised by theorists and politicians in the 1950s, the discourse and strategy of development produced its opposite: massive underdevelopment and impoverishment, untold exploitation and oppression…(Escobar)

21. … Development was – and continues to be for the most part – a top down, ethnocentric, and technocratic approach, which treated people and cultures as abstract concept, statistical figures to be moved up and down in charts of progress … … The discourse [of development] actually constitutes the problems (Escobar)

22. Economic development has traditionally been seen as the first form of development. Economic development: i.e., improvement of the way endowments and goods and services are used within the system to generate new goods and services in order to provide additional consumption and/or investment possibilities to the members of the system.

23. It has often been strictly associated with the concept of economic growth, in turn defined as an increase in the per capita income of the economic system. Indeed, growth defined in this way can be seen more as the result of an economic development process, i.e. the transformation of the structure of an economic system, rather than as a development process per se.

24. Social scientists have stated that development should not be viewed in terms of economics only. One should also pay attention to changes in family structures, attitudes and mentalities, cultural changes, demographic developments, political changes and nation-building, the transformation of rural societies and processes of urbanisation.

25. The Swedish Nobel prize-winner Gunnar Myrdal has argued that discussions of development have implicitly been based on a series of modernisation ideals or values.

26. According to Myrdal, there was a widespread consensus on the ultimate objectives of development among the members of political elites in developing countries involved in developmental policy. The broad concept of development therefore involves a change of the entire society in the direction of the modernisation ideals.

27. Modernisation ideals a)Rationality in policy, in the application of technological knowledge, in structuring social relations, in thinking about objectives and means. b)Planning for development; searching for a coherent system of policy measures in order to change situations that are considered undesirable.

28. c)Increases in production per capita and production per worker, primarily through industrialisation and increased capital intensity of production. d)Improvements in the standard of living.

29. e)Consolidation of the national state and national integration. f)National independence. g) Political democratisation. The concept of democratisation can be interpreted in various ways of which parliamentary democracy is but one. Democratisation always implies some notion of involving the masses of the population in political decision-making.

30. i)Declines in social and economic inequality. Development ought to be for the benefit of the people, the masses.

31. h)Increased social discipline. Developmental goals cannot be attained if governments cannot impose obligations on their citizens.

32. j)More efficient institutions and attitudes that are conducive to an increase in productivity and to development in general (for example, institutions that allow for mobility, initiative, entrepreneurship, effective competition and equal opportunities; attitudes like efficiency, diligence, orderliness, punctuality, economy, honesty, rationality, openness to change, solidarity and future-orientedness).

33. II-Right to Development RTD was formally recognized as an international Human Right, when the United Nations adopted the Declaration on the Right to Development on 4 th December 1986. Significantly, there was a lone dissenting voice, that of the US, and six abstentions!

34. UN Declaration on the Right to Development,1986 “The Right to Development is an inalienable Human Right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all Human Rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized.” (Article 1)

35. Major Arguments of the RTD 1.The Right to Development is an inalienable Human Right. (Article 1) (a) The human person is the central subject of development. (b) S/he should be the active participant and beneficiary of the RTD. (Article 2.1)

36. 2.States have the duty to formulate appropriate development policies that aim at the constant improvement of the entire population and of all individuals. (Article 2.3)

37. 3.States shall ensure: (a) Equality of opportunity for all in their access to basic resources, education, health, food, housing, employment, income; (b) That women have an active role in the development process; (c) Appropriate economic and social reforms to eradicate social injustices.

38. 4.States shall encourage popular participation in all spheres as an important factor in development.

39. III-The Dominant Paradigm of Development A.Purpose of Development Transformation of traditional, agrarian, backward economies and societies, into industrial, commodified, modern ones.

40. B. Basic Assumptions Endless conversion of resources into goods and services. Use of Science and Technology to make this conversion more and more productive and efficient.

41. Possibility of unlimited growth in a Free-Market system. Domination and exploitation of Nature. Philosophy of Social Darwinism: - Man is the most highly evolved of all species. - Survival of the Fittest!

42. C. Process Top-down. Reliance on Western knowledge, science and technology. Large investments in large projects.

43. D. Measurement Economic activity: - Production and Consumption of resources. Industrial development. GNP/GDP. Per Capita Income

44. Development and displacement More than six decades later, the concept of ‘development’ has created a virtual industry. However, the reality is that the numbers of poor people in whose name ‘development’ is justified – are greater than they were, when the concept was invented

45. According to some, their poverty is the direct result of ‘development’ In the words of Rajni Kothari, “Development is the biggest disaster!” According to one estimate:Ten million people a year, worldwide, suffer forced displacement from the construction of dams & urban transportation systems alone.

46. The numbers compare to the 12 million refugees annually displaced by wars and other disasters. But refugees may one day go home. The development-displaced can never do that! According to Balakrishnan Rajagopal (Human Rights specialist, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA):

47. “Forced dislocations of people is a form of ‘development cleansing’! “They may also constitute ethnic cleansing in disguise, since a disproportionate number of the dispossessed are from minority groups….” According to the World Commission on Dams, up to 80 million people around the world have been displaced by dams alone

48. Consequences A.Ecological Impact Environmental Degradation. Global Warming. Climate Change.

49. B. Widening Divides North-South Divide. Industry-Agriculture Divide. Urban-Rural Divide. Rich-Poor Divide.

50. C. Social Impact Poverty. Insecurity. Tension. Crime. Communalism. Fundamentalism. Terrorism.

51. Today, after more than 60 unprecedented years of rapidly growing global prosperity, about 3 billion people worldwide survive on less than $1 a day! This is a greater number than the entire world population in 1950

52. Instead of creating a more equal world, six decades of ‘development’ have produced: A socio-economic global apartheid, small islands of wealth, within and between nation-states, surrounded by impoverished humanity.

53. So do the escalating protests about Globalization, and the new politics of people’s resistance all over the world, to ‘development at gunpoint’ ‘Development’ today, is too often experienced, not as opportunity, but as damage, perhaps even as disaster

54. Alternative Paradigm of Development A.Purpose of Development Creation of sustainable economies and societies, based on non- violence, love, cooperation, harmony, contentment, and fulfillment of need, not greed.

55. B. Basic Assumptions Sustainable production and consumption. Use of Appropriate Technology. An understanding that growth can never be unlimited. There is a limit to growth

56. Human activity to be in balance with Nature. Philosophy of Ecologism: - Man is one among other species on this planet. - Peaceful co-existence of all species.

57. C. Process Bottom-up. Reliance on Traditional Knowledge and Appropriate Technology. Small investments in small projects. Democratic inclusion and participation of all. Local control.

58. D. Measurement of Development Fulfillment of basic material and non-material needs of all. Constant check on the condition of the natural environment, through techniques like: - Environmental Resource Accounting and Auditing.

59. Empowerment of the marginalized. Rural Development: - Condition of the village. - Condition of rural/cottage industries. Human Development Index. Gender Development Index.

60. Holistic – Balanced, Comprehensive, Inclusive. Indigenous/Self-Reliant. Need-based, not Greed-based. Sustainable. Humane.

61. What is Development? “It is not simply a question of economic growth, food production, modern equipment or technology transfer. Development is about people. It is humanity in all its dimensions, in full possession of dignity, and individual rights…

62. ….It is humanity developed in all its capacities of imagination, creativity, choice, decision-making, and of responsibility to its natural and social environment…” - Bertrand Schneider, ‘The Barefoot Revolution’, 1988.

63. Recently, Amartya Sen (1999) has argued for an even broader concept of development focusing on the concept of freedom. He sees development as an integrated process of expansion of substantive freedoms.

64. Human Development ‘Human Development is concerned with advancing the richness of human life, rather than the richness of the economy in which human beings live.” - Amartya Sen

65. ‘Development as Freedom’ Human Development’ presents a model of inclusive development. The objectives of ‘Human Development’ are: - Widening people’s choices; - Improving their lives.

66. Basic Assumptions of Sen Development must put people at the centre of its concerns. The purpose of development is to enlarge all human choices, not just income.

67. Human Development Reports The first Human Development Report was launched in 1990, and has become an annual feature, since then. The Human Development Report is an independent report, commissioned by the UNDP. It is a product of a team of scholars, initially led by Mahbub-ul-Haq of Bangladesh.

68. The concept is based on a calculation of 3 essential elements: - Income, - Education, and - Health.

69. Four main Human Development Indices have been developed by the Human Development Reports: 1.Human Development Index (HDI) - Combines indicators of Life Expectancy, Educational attainment and Per Capita Income into a composite Human Development Index.

70. 2. Gender Development Index (GDI) Takes note of inequality between Men and Women. Imposes a penalty for inequality. The greater the gender disparity, the lower a country’s GDI, compared with its HDI.

71. 3. Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Examines gender equality in economic and political participation and decision- making.

72. 4. Human Poverty Index Does not measure poverty by income, but by the most basic dimension of deprivation - a short life; - lack of basic education; and - lack of access to public and private resources.

73. Human Development Report, 2009 Country Rankings 1.Norway 2.Australia 3.Iceland 4.Canada 5.Ireland 6.Netherlands 7.Sweden 8.France 9.Switzerland 10.Japan 11.Luxembourg 12.Finland 13.United States of America

74. 92. China. 102. Sri Lanka 132. Bhutan 134. India 141. Pakistan 144. Nepal

75. Sustainable Development Context: Sorry State of the Environment Today Atmospheric Pollution Pollution of Water Bodies Loss of Forest Cover Depletion of Ground Water Extinction of Species Reduced Soil Fertility

76. State of the Environment Desertification Acid Rain Depletion of Ozone Layer Greenhouse Effect Global Warming Climate Change

77. Origins The origin of the term can be traced to the establishment of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) by the United Nations General Assembly in 1982.

78. Mrs. Gro Harlem Brundtland was appointed Chairperson of the WCED. The WCED came to be popularly referred to as the ‘Brundtland Commission’. The Commission submitted its Report, ‘Our Common Future’ in April 1987.

79. Definition According to the WCED/Brundtland Commission Report of 1987: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

80. The Brundtland Commission Approach to Sustainable Development Links environmental degradation with man-made interventions. Takes a positive attitude towards development: Economic development and environmental protection can be mutually compatible goals.

81. Recognizes that there are ultimate bio-physical limits to growth. Recognizes that the planetary eco-system cannot sustain the high consumption rates of the industrialized countries.

82. Maintains that consumption patterns of the North are driven by greed, not need. Acknowledges the responsibility of the present generation to future generations.

83. Policy Prescriptions for Promoting Sustainable Development 1.Structural Sustainability - Establishment of structures and institutions to promote Sustainable Development.

84. 2. Industrial Sustainability Creation of circular industrial eco- systems. Designing products for needs.

85. 3. Agricultural Sustainability Promotion of: Polyculture Agro-Ecology Organic Farming

86. 4. Urban Sustainability Planning, guiding and regulating the built environment, based on ‘carrying capacity’. Conservation of lakes, trees, parks/gardens. Treatment of wastewaters prior to disposal into rivers, lakes or the sea.

87. An effective water management plan, with the following components: - Rainwater Harvesting; - Encouraging conservative use; - Paying realistic prices; - Better maintenance and leakage prevention.

88. 5. Forest Sustainability Ensuring retention of minimum forest cover. Co-ordination of authorities responsible for forest management functions. Making tribals and forest dwellers stakeholders in forest management and preservation.

89. 6. Energy Sustainability Shift to alternative, renewable sources of energy. Encouraging change in lifestyles. Introducing energy efficiency standards. Elimination of subsidies; levy of energy taxes.

90. Essential Requirements for Promoting Sustainable Development Need to re-cast our vocabulary. Need to change our materialistic culture. Need to change our educational system. Need to change our value systems.

91. “The earth has enough for every man’s need, but not for every man’s greed!”