1. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 1 Life Cycle Assessment - LCA

2. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 2 Outline Introduction Phases of an LCA Goal and scope definition Inventory analysis (LCI) Life Cycle Impact Assessment Case Study What Are the Benefits of Conducting an LCA? Limitations of Conducting an LCA

3. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Development which satisfies the needs of the present without compromising the possibility for future generations to satisfy their own needs Introduction

4. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 A brief history Originated from energy analysis and some claim first LCA carried out by coca cola in 1969 SETAC set first standards in 1990 ISO produced series of standards in 1997/98 which were recently revised – ISO 14047:2012 Life cycle assessment - Illustrative examples – ISO 14049:2012 Illustrative examples on how to apply ISO 14044 – ISO 14067:2013 Greenhouse gases - Carbon footprint of products

5. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 Phases of an LCA

6. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 6 Goal and scope definition Functional unit System boundaries; Assumptions and limitations; Allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several products or functions share the same process; Impact categories chosen.

7. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 Inventory analysis (LCI)

8. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 8 There is no universal Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) Each case will vary e.g. in relation to the number of categories in the analysis and their definition Life Cycle Impact Assessment

9. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 9 A - Selection and Definition of Impact Categories

10. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 10

11. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 11 Global warming potential, GWP. Some of the gases in the Earth’s atmosphere (in particular water vapour and carbon dioxide) have an ability to absorb infra-red radiation. Global Impacts - polar melt, soil moisture loss, longer seasons, forest loss/change, and change in wind and ocean patterns. Characterisation factor: KG of GWP 100 (Global Warming Potential over a time horizon of 100years). Indicator: Kg of CO 2 equivalent. Ozone depletion potential, ODP. Ozone forms a layer in the stratosphere protecting plants and animals from much of the sun’s harmful UV radiation. Global Impacts - increased ultraviolet radiation. Characterisation factor: KG of ODP (Ozone Depletion Potential in stationary conditions). Indicator: Kg of CFC-11 equivalent.

12. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 12 Acidification, AP. Acidification originates from the emissions of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Regional Impacts - building corrosion, water body acidification, vegetation effects, and soil effects. Characterisation factor: KG of AP (Acidification Potential). Indicator: Kg of H+ equivalent.

13. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 13 Global Impacts Global Warming - polar melt, soil moisture loss, longer seasons, forest loss/change, and change in wind and ocean patterns. Ozone Depletion - increased ultraviolet radiation. Resource Depletion -decreased resources for future generations. Regional Impacts Photochemical Smog - “smog,” decreased visibility, eye irritation, respiratory tract and lung irritation, and vegetation damage. Acidification - building corrosion, water body acidification, vegetation effects, and soil effects. Local Impacts Human Health - increased morbidity and mortality. Terrestrial Toxicity - decreased production and biodiversity and decreased wildlife for hunting or viewing. Aquatic Toxicity - decreased aquatic plant and insect production and biodiversity and decreased commercial or recreational fishing. Eutrophication – nutrients (phosphorous and nitrogen) enter water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries and slow-moving streams, causing excessive plant growth and oxygen depletion. Land Use - loss of terrestrial habitat for wildlife and decreased landfill space. Water Use - loss of available water from groundwater and surface water sources.

14. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 14 B.- Classification - assigning LCI results to the impact categories C. Characterization - modelling LCI impacts within impact categories using science-based conversion factors Example Chloroform GWP Factor Value = 9 Quantity Methane GWP Factor Value = 21 Quantity Chloroform GWP Impact = 20 kg x 9 = 180 kg CO 2 equivalents Methane GWP Impact = 10 kg x 21 = 210 kg CO2 equivalents Inventory Data × Characterization Factor = Impact Indicators

15. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 15 D. Normalization and Weighting - expressing potential impacts in ways that can be compared The weighting step assigns weights or relative values to the different impact categories based on their perceived importance or relevance. Because weighting is not a scientific process, it is vital that the weighting methodology is clearly explained and documented. Acidification (kg H+ eq. 0.2) Eutrophication (kg PO4 eq. 0.6) Global warming potential (kg CO2 eq. 1.3) 1 MJ of electrical energy Acidifi. (kg H+ eq. 0.1) Eutroph. (kg PO4 eq. 0.4) GWP (kg CO2 eq. 2.1)

16. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 16 Box A: The most used weighting methods  Eco-indicator 99 The Eco-indicator 99 method comes in three versions, Egalitarian, Individualist and the Hierarchist (default) version. Normalisation and weighting are performed at damage category level (endpoint level in ISO terminology). There are three damage categories:Egalitarian, Individualist and the Hierarchist 1) Human Health (unit: DALY= Disability adjusted life years; this means different disability caused by diseases are weighted) 2) Ecosystem Quality (unit: PDF*m2yr; PDF= Potentially Disappeared Fraction of plant species) 3) Resources (unit: MJ surplus energy. Additional energy requirement to compensate lower future ore grade) CML 2 baseline method (2000) The CML 2 baseline method elaborates the problem-oriented (midpoint) approach. The CML Guide provides a list of impact assessment categories grouped into: 1.Obligatory impact categories (Category indicators used in most LCAs). 2.Additional impact categories (operational indicators exist, but are not often included in LCA studies). 3.Other impact categories (no operational indicators available, therefore impossible to include quantitatively in LCA). In case several methods are available for obligatory impact categories, a baseline indicator is selected, based on the principle of best available practice. These baseline indicators are category indicators at "mid-point level" (problem oriented approach). Baseline indicators are recommended for simplified studies. The guide provides guidelines for inclusion of other methods and impact category indicators in case of detailed studies and extended studies.  Impact 2002+ IMPACT 2002+ version is mainly a combination between IMPACT 2002 (Pennington et al. 2005), Eco-indicator 99, CML 2000 and IPCC.  Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) Calculates the total (primary) energy use through a life cycle based (HHV) (Frischknecht et al., 2003).

17. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 17 Box A: The most used weighting methods  EPS 2000 Environmental Priority Strategies in product design (default methodology). The EPS system is mainly aimed to be a tool for a company's internal product development process. The top-down development of the EPS system has led to an outspoken hierarchy among its principles and rules. The general principles of its development are: 1.The top-down principle (highest priority is given to the usefulness of the system) 2.The index principle (ready made indices represent weighted and aggregated impacts) 3.The default principle (an operative method as default is required) 4.The uncertainty principle (uncertainty of input data has to be estimated) 5.Choice of default data and models to determine them The EPS 2000 default method is an update of the 1996 version. The impact categories are identified from five safe guard subjects: human health, ecosystem production capacity, abiotic stock resource, biodiversity and cultural and recreational values.  EPD method This method is to be used for the creation of Environmental Product Declarations or (EPD's) following the recommendations of the Swedish Environmental Management Council (SEMC). Note this is a preliminary version. In standard EPD's one only has to report on the following impact categories: Gross Calorific Values (GVC) (also referred to as the "Higher Heating Values") Greenhouse gases Ozone depleting gases Acidifying compounds Gases creating ground-level ozone (Photochemical Ozone creation) Eutrophicating compounds Except for the Gross Calorific Value (GVC) impact categories, all impact categories are taken directly from the CML 2 baseline 2000 method  IPCC Greenhouse gas emissions IPCC characterization factors for direct global warming potential of airborne emissions. Three time perspectives are included: 20, 100 and 500 years. (Climate Change 2001).

18. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 18 Eco-indicator 99

19. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013

20. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 20 Case Study ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION BOARDS Improve the performance of the electrical distribution board, in terms of environmental impact

21. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 1 - Goal Definition and Scoping Object of analysis: low tension distribution boards (<1000 V;1250-6300 A) Functional Unit: unit that appropriately describes the function of the product or process being studied Differences in size, output and efficiency between single machines Capacity to distribute 1 MJ of electrical energy Acceptable error: the maximum acceptable error for each single category of impact referred to the whole life cycle is 5%; this is in fact the variance which exists between the data for environmental impact when several data bases are compared.

22. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 2. Inventory Analysis –

23. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 low protection index, temperature of 35°C and range of current [0 A; 1250 A]. Electrical distribution boards “A58”.

24. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 The value of the total mass excluded remains under 5% Some groups of codes were excluded from the analysis (functional elements for manoeuvre, such as switches, isolating switches etc.)

25. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment - Acidification, AP - Eutrophication - Global warming potential, GWP - Ozone depletion potential, ODP - Photochemical ozone creation, POCP A - Selection and Definition of Impact Categories

26. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 B - Identification of any harmful substances emitted per impact category (classification). For example, for the Acidification impact (AP), expressed in kg of H+ equivalents, out of all the emissions caused by the cold rolling production process only those which concern this impact category are shown in the table * the amounts emitted refer to one ton of product The sources of the data used are mainly bibliographical and public and include the principal European LCI databases such as ETH-ESU, BUWAL and APME

27. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 C - Identification of the CF (Characterisation Factor) for each single substance identified above (characterisation); According to ISO TR 14025 the harmful substances for this impact category are:

28. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 Calculation of the PI (potential impact) of the single raw material or the energy for each single impact (characterisation). (1,60E+00  8,145 + 5,00E-01  4540 + 1,20E+00  6180)/1000000 = 9,70E-03 [kg of H+ ion eq./kgsteel]

29. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 For each category the total impacts, referred to the production and the component assembly stages, have been calculated 9,70E-03 x 140,05 kg + 1,44E-01 x 5,10 kg + 1.93E-02 x 1,12 kg = 2,12 [kg of H+ ion eq.]

30. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 What Are the Benefits of Conducting an LCA? help decision-makers: 1.Develop a systematic evaluation of the environmental consequences associated with a given product. 2.Analyze the environmental trade-offs associated with one or more specific products/processes to help gain stakeholder (state, community, etc.) acceptance for a planned action. 3.Quantify environmental releases to air, water, and land in relation to each life cycle stage and/or major contributing process. 4.Assess the human and ecological effects of material consumption and environmental releases to the local community, region, and world.

31. XVIII Summer School "Francesco Turco” Senigallia (AN), Italy, on 11-13 Sept 2013 Limitations of Conducting an LCA - Performing an LCA can be resource and time intensive Gathering the data can be problematic, and the availability of data can greatly impact the accuracy of the final results. - LCA will not determine which product or process is the most cost effective or works the best. Therefore, the information developed in an LCA study should be used as one component of a more comprehensive decision process assessing the trade-offs with cost and performance, - There are a number of ways to conduct LCIA Converting the impact results to a single score requires the use of value judgments, which must be applied by the commissioner of the study or the modeler, but it cannot be done based solely on natural science.