2. AICE - Marine Scientific Method – Part 2 Theories Types of Marine Equipment

3. What is a theory?  a coherent group of propositions formulated to explain a group of facts or phenomena in the natural world and repeatedly confirmed through experiment or observation.

4. The result of experiments is the formation of theories  Theories and laws in science do not arise fully formed or all at once.  A theory is strengthened if new facts support it. If not, the theory is modified or a new explanation is sought.  The power of science lies in its ability to operate in reverse; that is, in the use of a theory or law to predict and anticipate new facts to be observed.

5. Scientific Method is the process for verifying or rejecting theories.  The scientific method is circular – new theories and laws always suggest new questions.  WHY? Because science is always changing!!  Nothing is ever proven ABSOLUTELY TRUE by the scientific method; experimental results can sometimes be uncertain.

6. What are some reasons for uncertainty in experimental data??  What is the nature of “truth” in science? Can anything be proven absolutely true? Why??  Because science is always changing!!

7. What are some reasons for uncertainty in experimental data??  Reasons for uncertainty: ** Measurements are subject to some uncertainty ** 1. Leaking gas syringes. 2. Calibration errors in pH meters. 3. Calibration of a balance 4. Changes in external influences such as temperature and atmospheric pressure affect the measurement of gas volumes, etc.

8. What are some reasons for uncertainty in experimental data??  Reasons for uncertainty: 5. Personal errors such as reading scales incorrectly. 6. Unaccounted heat loss. 7. Liquids evaporating. 8. Spattering of chemicals.  All these reasons are why we re-test multiple times in the scientific process using the scientific method.

9. Scientific Method is the process for verifying or rejecting theories.  Theories may change as our knowledge and powers of observation change; thus, all scientific understanding is tentative.  Conclusions about the natural world that we reach by scientific process may not always be comfortable, easily understood, or immediately embraced.  If conclusions consistently match observations, theories may be considered true.  A hypothesis that is consistently supported by experimental testing and observation can become a theory.

10. Types of Marine Technology used to gather data

11. Technology matters Most of the topics we’ve learned so far rely on measurement and observation: – Ocean acidification – Salinity – Currents – Wind speed and direction – Sea surface temperature

12. Technology matters Scientists use many instruments for these measurements and observations Today we’ll learn about: – Satellites – CTD – Buoys – Drifters – Niskin bottle – Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) – Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs)

13. Different types of satellites Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) – Orbit from pole to pole about 14.1 times per day – Key for providing weather forecasts Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) – Match Earth’s rotational speed so that they appear to hover over a single, fixed spot on Earth – Key for predicting and monitoring storms (e.g., hurricanes) Satellites capture visible imagery and can be used to measure sea surface temperature, sea surface height, presence of chlorophyll and wind patterns

14. Image from a GOES Satellite This photo of Tropical Storm Ida was taken by a NOAA Satellite on 11/9/09

15. Satellites are also used to study climate change and sea-level rise Just as the land surface has hills and valleys, so does the ocean surface Ocean surface topography refers to the overall shape of the sea surface – Scientists use satellites to measure sea surface heights on a global scale and study ocean surface topography – Data on sea surface topography help scientists study and model ocean circulation, climate change, hurricanes and sea-level rise

16. Estimates of sea level rise 1992 - 2010 (using data from Jason 2 satellite and its predecessors) Based on this image, how much is sea level rising off the U.S. east coast on average per year? 2-3 mm/yr

17. Ocean color can also be measured from space Instruments aboard satellites can measure ocean color Examples – MODIS (aboard Terra & Aqua satellites) – SeaWiFS (aboard SeaStar satellite) Ocean color can help scientists study – Phytoplankton (small ocean plants) – Global biogeochemistry – Climate variability Phytoplankton Bloom about size of Wisconsin in Barents Sea Photo: MODIS, 2007

18. CTD A CTD measures Conductivity, Temperature and Depth, which can be used to calculate salinity A CTD is typically deployed on a frame with several Niskin bottles for water sampling at different depths The full instrument (CTD and niskin bottles) is called a rosette CTD rosette loaded with Niskin bottles Photo: NOAA

19. Data buoys Located in nearshore areas close to lighthouses, piers, and beaches as well as in offshore areas Collect data on weather, wind, waves, and other variables 6-Meter Buoy prior to deployment. Source: NOAA National Data Buoy Center This map shows NOAA buoys in the mid-Atlantic region Photo: NOAA

20. DART: NOAA’s U.S. tsunami warning system Deep ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis A network of buoys provides NOAA researchers with data about tsunamis that could possibly impact the U.S., its territories and other areas of the world NOAA DART buoy locations Photo: NOAA

21. Drifters Simple device suspended a few feet below the water surface, attached to 4 small floats Measures current data, which is sent to a polar satellite and then relayed to a monitoring station They can be used to study wind, temperature, pressure, ocean color, salinity, and plankton Photo: NOAA Shallow-water drifters float on the surface and are carried through currents by their blue “sails”

22. Niskin bottle Used to collect water samples at specific depths Samples are removed from the bottle and analyzed Scientists can then determine the ocean chemistry of the water Photo: NOAA

23. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) Underwater robots that allow the controller to be located above the water Connected to the topside that houses communications cables, an energy source and information transfer Photo: NOAA

24. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) Robots that travel underwater without requiring input from an operator. They do not require a connected cable. They operate independently from a ship. They are computer programmed and solar-powered. Photo: NOAA