1. Criminal Violence Riedel and Welsh, Ch. 12 “The Role of Firearms in Violence”

2. OUTLINE Patterns and Trends: Firearm Violence Explanations Symbolic Interaction Symbolic Interaction Routine Activities Routine Activities Cultural Theories Cultural TheoriesInterventions Disrupting Illegal Markets Disrupting Illegal Markets Boston Gun Project and Operation Ceasefire Boston Gun Project and Operation Ceasefire Stop and Frisk Stop and Frisk Gun Control Legislation Gun Control Legislation Right to Carry Laws Right to Carry Laws

3. Introduction Gun-related violence and gun control are among the most controversial and contentious issues in the United States. Gun-related violence and gun control are among the most controversial and contentious issues in the United States. There is probably no other issue where the need for valid information (patterns, explanations, interventions) is so badly needed. There is probably no other issue where the need for valid information (patterns, explanations, interventions) is so badly needed. http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/23/opinion/frum- guns/index.html?hpt=hp_c2 http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/23/opinion/frum- guns/index.html?hpt=hp_c2 http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/23/opinion/frum- guns/index.html?hpt=hp_c2 http://www.cnn.com/2012/07/23/opinion/frum- guns/index.html?hpt=hp_c2

4. Patterns and Trends In any given year, firearms are involved in about one-half of all suicides and two-thirds of homicides (NRC, 2005). In any given year, firearms are involved in about one-half of all suicides and two-thirds of homicides (NRC, 2005). Firearms are more likely to be used in some types of violent crime than others (e.g., robbery). Firearms are more likely to be used in some types of violent crime than others (e.g., robbery). About 26% of robberies and 31% of aggravated assaults in 2011 involved a firearm. About 26% of robberies and 31% of aggravated assaults in 2011 involved a firearm.

5. Patterns (cont.) Risk factors vary dramatically by demographics such as race, age, and gender. Risk factors vary dramatically by demographics such as race, age, and gender. Race: Race: Homicide is the leading cause of death for black males aged 15–34, and it is the sixth leading cause of death for blacks at all ages (NRC, 2005). Homicide is the leading cause of death for black males aged 15–34, and it is the sixth leading cause of death for blacks at all ages (NRC, 2005). In 2010, the rate of firearm homicide for blacks was 14.6 per 100,000, compared to 1.9 for whites, 2.7 for American Indians and Alaska Natives, and 1.0 for Asians and Pacific Islanders (Planty & Truman, 2013). In 2010, the rate of firearm homicide for blacks was 14.6 per 100,000, compared to 1.9 for whites, 2.7 for American Indians and Alaska Natives, and 1.0 for Asians and Pacific Islanders (Planty & Truman, 2013). Gender: 83% of gun crime victims are males. 90% of firearm homicides are committed by males. Age: Offense rates are highest for ages 18–24.

6. Trends: rate of firearm homicides also declined after 1993 but has remained fairly stable since 1998. In 2011, about 70% of all homicides were committed with a firearm.

7. Trends: rate of nonfatal crimes committed with firearms declined dramatically after 1993. In 2011, about 8% of all nonfatal violent victimizations (rape, sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated assault) were committed with a firearm.

8. Firearm Acquisition & Use Sheley & Wright Sheley & Wright: Juveniles reported easy access to guns—only 35% said it would be difficult. 83% of juveniles in secure detention centers and 22% of urban high school students possessed guns. These firearms tended to be high-quality, powerful revolvers. self- protection The main reason given for carrying a gun was self- protection.

9. FIREARM ACQUISITION AND USE Wright and Rossi (1985): Interviewed 1,874 incarcerated felons. Of these, 184 reported firing a gun while committing an offense. Interviewed 1,874 incarcerated felons. Of these, 184 reported firing a gun while committing an offense. The most commonly reported motivations for using a gun included “to protect myself” (48%), “to scare the victim” (45%), and to “kill the victim” (36%) (categories not mutually exclusive). The most commonly reported motivations for using a gun included “to protect myself” (48%), “to scare the victim” (45%), and to “kill the victim” (36%) (categories not mutually exclusive). 1991 Survey of State Prison Inmates (Beck, 1993): Interviewed 14,000 inmates. Interviewed 14,000 inmates. The most frequently reported reasons for using a gun were to scare the victim (54%), for protection (30%), to kill the victim (14%), or to get away (12%). The most frequently reported reasons for using a gun were to scare the victim (54%), for protection (30%), to kill the victim (14%), or to get away (12%).

10. SOURCES OF GUN ACQUISITION Wright and Rossi (1985) Inmates reported that the most frequent source of guns was Inmates reported that the most frequent source of guns was Family or friends (44%) Family or friends (44%) Illegal gun markets (26%) Illegal gun markets (26%) Retail outlets (21%) Retail outlets (21%) Other (9%) Other (9%)

11. Explanations Symbolic Interaction Theory Luckenbill: disputes become violent through a series of interpersonal exchanges. Luckenbill: disputes become violent through a series of interpersonal exchanges. A situated transaction refers to an interaction between people in a specific setting, time, and social context. A situated transaction refers to an interaction between people in a specific setting, time, and social context. The presence of a weapon during a dispute greatly increases the likelihood of its use. The presence of a weapon during a dispute greatly increases the likelihood of its use. Homicides typically centered on some conflict which escalated over time and resulted in attempts by one or both parties to "save face" at the other's expense. Homicides typically centered on some conflict which escalated over time and resulted in attempts by one or both parties to "save face" at the other's expense.

12. Routine Activities and Illegal Markets Routine activity patterns influence crime rates by affecting the convergence in space and time of (1) motivated offenders, (2) suitable targets, and (3) the absence of capable guardians. Routine activity patterns influence crime rates by affecting the convergence in space and time of (1) motivated offenders, (2) suitable targets, and (3) the absence of capable guardians. Offenders commit offenses near places where they spend most of their time and major pathways in between. Offenders commit offenses near places where they spend most of their time and major pathways in between. Victims are victimized near places where they spend most of their time and major pathways in between. Victims are victimized near places where they spend most of their time and major pathways in between. Sherman et al. (1989): Places, like people, have their own routine activities. Sherman et al. (1989): Places, like people, have their own routine activities. Hot spots: Over half of all calls to police were to only 3.3% of all places. Hot spots: Over half of all calls to police were to only 3.3% of all places. Illegal markets in certain places (e.g., prostitution, drug sales) create their own routine activities. Illegal markets in certain places (e.g., prostitution, drug sales) create their own routine activities. Many carry weapons to protect themselves. Many carry weapons to protect themselves.

13. Cultural Theories and Firearm Availability Proportion of households owning any gun has ranged from 40% to 50% over the past 30 years. Proportion of households owning any gun has ranged from 40% to 50% over the past 30 years. http://www.gallup.com/poll/150353/self-reported-gun-ownership- highest-1993.aspx http://www.gallup.com/poll/150353/self-reported-gun-ownership- highest-1993.aspx http://www.gallup.com/poll/150353/self-reported-gun-ownership- highest-1993.aspx http://www.gallup.com/poll/150353/self-reported-gun-ownership- highest-1993.aspx Rates of gun ownership are highest in rural areas and small towns, higher for whites than blacks, highest in the South, and higher for high-income households. Rates of gun ownership are highest in rural areas and small towns, higher for whites than blacks, highest in the South, and higher for high-income households. Thus, simple “subcultural” interpretations are not easy to support; there is considerable diversity in the membership of gun owners. Thus, simple “subcultural” interpretations are not easy to support; there is considerable diversity in the membership of gun owners. Research shows little relationship between gun availability and the number of nonfatal gun crimes, although greater gun availability was associated with a higher rate of felony murder. Research shows little relationship between gun availability and the number of nonfatal gun crimes, although greater gun availability was associated with a higher rate of felony murder. Gun availability alone cannot explain high rates of violent crime in the United States. Gun availability alone cannot explain high rates of violent crime in the United States.

14. Cultural Theories (cont.): Recall from Ch. 1 that violence is “socially constructed”: Recall from Ch. 1 that violence is “socially constructed”: Certain problems are perceived Certain problems are perceived Decisions are made to focus attention and resources on a particular problem Decisions are made to focus attention and resources on a particular problem A “problem” is identified as a result of social interaction: A “problem” is identified as a result of social interaction: 1. Perception 2. Advocacy 3. Action Thus, problems are often exaggerated or distorted. Thus, problems are often exaggerated or distorted. Recommended Reading: Barry Glassner, The Culture of Fear http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/293144-6 http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/293144-6

15. Media Violence In 2000, six major medical associations issued a joint statement to Congress concluding that viewing media violence can increase aggressive attitudes, values, and behaviors, especially in children (Cook et al., 2000). In 2000, six major medical associations issued a joint statement to Congress concluding that viewing media violence can increase aggressive attitudes, values, and behaviors, especially in children (Cook et al., 2000). Children who are repeatedly exposed to media violence develop a stable set of aggressive scripts that are easily activated and serve as a guide in responding to social situations. Children who are repeatedly exposed to media violence develop a stable set of aggressive scripts that are easily activated and serve as a guide in responding to social situations. Simply seeing a weapon can increase aggression, a phenomenon known as the “weapons effect.” Simply seeing a weapon can increase aggression, a phenomenon known as the “weapons effect.” Television violence has strongest impact on preschool children, partly because they are still learning social norms about how to behave. Television violence has strongest impact on preschool children, partly because they are still learning social norms about how to behave.

16. Interventions I. Disrupting Illegal Markets I. Disrupting Illegal Markets II. Boston Gun Project and Operation Ceasefire II. Boston Gun Project and Operation Ceasefire III. Gun Control Legislation III. Gun Control Legislation 1. Altering gun uses or storage 2. Reducing lethality of guns 3. Market-based strategies IV. Right to Carry Laws IV. Right to Carry Laws

17. I. DISRUPTING ILLEGAL MARKETS KANSAS CITY GUN EXPERIMENT Based on the theory that additional, proactive police patrols to detect gun violations in high-crime areas would increase gun seizures and reduce gun crime by either deterring or incapacitating gun-using criminals (Sherman, 1995). Based on the theory that additional, proactive police patrols to detect gun violations in high-crime areas would increase gun seizures and reduce gun crime by either deterring or incapacitating gun-using criminals (Sherman, 1995). Results: Results: 1. Target Beat: Gun seizures by police increased significantly (by 65%), while gun crimes declined significantly (by 49%). 2. Comparison Beat: During the same time period, there were no significant changes in gun crimes or guns seized. 3. Several alternative hypotheses were ruled out (e.g., only gun crimes were affected by the directed patrols; there was no measurable displacement of gun crimes to beats surrounding the target area).

18. Stop and Frisk Stop, question, and frisk (SQF) is a crime prevention tactic whereby a police officer may stop a person based on “reasonable suspicion” of criminal activity and perhaps conduct a “frisk” or pat down when based on reasonable suspicion that the person is armed and dangerous. Stop, question, and frisk (SQF) is a crime prevention tactic whereby a police officer may stop a person based on “reasonable suspicion” of criminal activity and perhaps conduct a “frisk” or pat down when based on reasonable suspicion that the person is armed and dangerous. Critics point out that few arrests result from SQF—because the vast majority of persons stopped are innocent of any wrongdoing. Only 6% of all stops in New York resulted in an arrest; an additional 6% resulted in a summons; the remaining 88% resulted in no further law enforcement action (Rudovsky, 2013). Only a small fraction of stops yielded a weapon (about 1.5%). Critics point out that few arrests result from SQF—because the vast majority of persons stopped are innocent of any wrongdoing. Only 6% of all stops in New York resulted in an arrest; an additional 6% resulted in a summons; the remaining 88% resulted in no further law enforcement action (Rudovsky, 2013). Only a small fraction of stops yielded a weapon (about 1.5%). Police officials argue the opposite: the fact that few arrests are made reflects the deterrent value of the policy. Police officials argue the opposite: the fact that few arrests are made reflects the deterrent value of the policy. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNf7UG9gxi0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNf7UG9gxi0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNf7UG9gxi0 Rosenfeld & Fornango (2014), in their analysis of New York police stops and crime rates for the period 2003–2010, found no significant effects of police stops on precinct robbery and burglary rates, with the exception that a small, marginally significant, negative effect of police stops lagged 2 years behind the burglary rate. Rosenfeld & Fornango (2014), in their analysis of New York police stops and crime rates for the period 2003–2010, found no significant effects of police stops on precinct robbery and burglary rates, with the exception that a small, marginally significant, negative effect of police stops lagged 2 years behind the burglary rate. No significant effects of police stops were found for precinct robbery rates. No significant effects of police stops were found for precinct robbery rates. They also found no significant effects of SQF arrests or misdemeanor arrests on robbery or burglary. They also found no significant effects of SQF arrests or misdemeanor arrests on robbery or burglary.

19. II. BOSTON GUN PROJECT & OPERATION CEASEFIRE Step 1: Officials analyzed the supply and demand for guns. Youth homicides were concentrated in neighborhoods that hosted an estimated 61 gangs involving about 1,300 juveniles. Youth homicides were concentrated in neighborhoods that hosted an estimated 61 gangs involving about 1,300 juveniles. Step 2: A stern message was delivered to gang members. Continued violence would lead to: severe personal restrictions for those on probation and parole (bed-checks, room searches, and enforcement of warrants), intensive police presence in neighborhoods, search and seizure of unregistered cars, vigorous arrest and prosecution for disorder offenses (drinking in public), and strict enforcement of curfew laws. Continued violence would lead to: severe personal restrictions for those on probation and parole (bed-checks, room searches, and enforcement of warrants), intensive police presence in neighborhoods, search and seizure of unregistered cars, vigorous arrest and prosecution for disorder offenses (drinking in public), and strict enforcement of curfew laws. Step 3: City, state, and federal agenciess helped establish a large network of community-based job, recreation, and prevention programs for juveniles. RESULTS 63% decrease in monthly youth homicides; 63% decrease in monthly youth homicides; 32% decrease in # of “shots-fired” calls to police; 32% decrease in # of “shots-fired” calls to police; 25% decrease in monthly firearm-related assaults (Braga et al., 2001) [but: no real control group; many strategies] 25% decrease in monthly firearm-related assaults (Braga et al., 2001) [but: no real control group; many strategies] David Kennedy recounts the development and execution of his plan to curb inner- city violence in Boston in the 1990s. Kennedy responded to questions from members of the audience at Harvard Book Store in Cambridge, Massachusetts. http://www.c-span.org/video/?303600-1/book-discussion-dont-shoot

20. III. GUN CONTROL LEGISLATION Three broad strategies: 1. Altering gun uses or storage (regulations affecting the legal carrying, storage, and use of a firearm) 2. Reducing lethality of guns (e.g., technology such as user identification mechanisms and trigger locks) 3. Market-based strategies (i.e., restrictions on availability)

21. 1. ALTERING GUN USES OR STORAGE (regulations affecting the legal carrying, storage, and use of a firearm) Bartley-Fox laws in MA: Expanded gun licensing procedures, and mandated a one-year sentence for unlicensed carrying of a firearm. Bartley-Fox laws in MA: Expanded gun licensing procedures, and mandated a one-year sentence for unlicensed carrying of a firearm. During a two-year evaluation period, the law decreased gun use in assaults and robberies and decreased gun homicides (Pierce and Bowers, 1979). During a two-year evaluation period, the law decreased gun use in assaults and robberies and decreased gun homicides (Pierce and Bowers, 1979). Sentencing enhancements for the use of a gun during a felony. Sentencing enhancements for the use of a gun during a felony. Study of six jurisdictions showed a decrease in gun homicides but no change in nongun homicides and no consistent effect on gun robberies or assaults. Study of six jurisdictions showed a decrease in gun homicides but no change in nongun homicides and no consistent effect on gun robberies or assaults.

22. 2. Reducing Lethality of Guns (e.g., technology such as user identification mechanisms and trigger locks) Includes measures that designate certain firearms (e.g., assault rifles) as dangerous because of concealability, firepower, or other risk Includes measures that designate certain firearms (e.g., assault rifles) as dangerous because of concealability, firepower, or other risk Also includes measures that restrict access to certain types of weapons or ammunition by law or make weapons less dangerous by requiring specific types of safety technology (e.g., trigger locks). Also includes measures that restrict access to certain types of weapons or ammunition by law or make weapons less dangerous by requiring specific types of safety technology (e.g., trigger locks). Little evaluation evidence of these strategies exists at this time. Little evaluation evidence of these strategies exists at this time. Chris Rock on Bullets: Chris Rock on Bullets: www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4DnNKKIfrM

23. Firearms can be diverted to criminals or juveniles at any stage of legitimate business. Examples: Stolen guns straw purchases “lying and buying” gun dealer ignores regulations 3. Market-Based Strategies

24. Federal Gun Control Act of 1968: Prohibited gun dealers from selling to “dangerous” categories of persons (juveniles, convicted felons, drug users, and former mental patients) Prohibited gun dealers from selling to “dangerous” categories of persons (juveniles, convicted felons, drug users, and former mental patients) No significant effects on firearms injuries or deaths were found in an evaluation study (Zimring, 1975), although weak enforcement of the laws is partially responsible for weak effects. No significant effects on firearms injuries or deaths were found in an evaluation study (Zimring, 1975), although weak enforcement of the laws is partially responsible for weak effects. The Brady Act (1994) Mandated presale background checks and prohibited retail sales of guns to persons in high-risk categories specified by federal law. Mandated presale background checks and prohibited retail sales of guns to persons in high-risk categories specified by federal law. Only about 2% of all applicants are rejected annually. Most rejections (58%) were for a prior felony conviction or a current felony indictment. Only about 2% of all applicants are rejected annually. Most rejections (58%) were for a prior felony conviction or a current felony indictment. Few evaluations exist (but see Ludwig and Cook, 2000), but given the small percentage of rejections relative to applicants, the cost-effectiveness of this strategy is questionable. Few evaluations exist (but see Ludwig and Cook, 2000), but given the small percentage of rejections relative to applicants, the cost-effectiveness of this strategy is questionable. Market Based Strategies: Screening Gun Buyers

25. Market-Based Strategies: District of Columbia Handgun Ban (1975) Prohibited ownership of handguns by virtually anyone except police officers, security guards, and previous gun owners. Prohibited ownership of handguns by virtually anyone except police officers, security guards, and previous gun owners. During periods of vigorous enforcement in the 3 years following implementation, the law reduced rates of gun robbery, assault, and homicide. During periods of vigorous enforcement in the 3 years following implementation, the law reduced rates of gun robbery, assault, and homicide. However, gun homicides increased in 1988 when crack markets exploded. However, gun homicides increased in 1988 when crack markets exploded. On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court struck down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession and decided for the first time in the nation's history that the Second Amendment guarantees an individual’s right to own a gun for self-defense. On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court struck down the District of Columbia's ban on handgun possession and decided for the first time in the nation's history that the Second Amendment guarantees an individual’s right to own a gun for self-defense.

26. IV. RIGHT-TO-CARRY LAWS Some researchers (e.g., Lott) have claimed that increased handgun availability among the population provides a deterrent to would-be criminals. NRC (2005): “It is impossible to draw strong conclusions from the existing literature on the causal impact of these laws.” Limitations of Research: Inadequate controls for cross-jurisdictional variations in poverty rates, gang and drug activity, and local and state governmental gun laws and anticrime programs Short time series Small number of jurisdictions Questionable measurement of key variables A lack of individual-level data of actual gun attitudes or use

27. Conclusion Because felons most frequently obtain their firearms through unregulated sales, the benefits of further federal regulation of guns may be small. Because felons most frequently obtain their firearms through unregulated sales, the benefits of further federal regulation of guns may be small. While a diverse array of legislation has been attempted in recent years, much more rigorous, controlled evaluations of different interventions are needed. While a diverse array of legislation has been attempted in recent years, much more rigorous, controlled evaluations of different interventions are needed. Strategies aimed at disrupting illegal markets and targeting high-risk individuals appear the most promising. Strategies aimed at disrupting illegal markets and targeting high-risk individuals appear the most promising.