我们所知道的核能? Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine,

我们所知道的核能? Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine,
We intend to show the public and experts in the field of medicine that is radiation, its properties, to show the history and development of nuclear weapons, energy and medicine. What awaits us in the future, and whether you want us to know about preventive measures in case of nuclear accidents, terrorism and medical research using radiation. In addition, the lecture is dedicated to an important event: the Russian Federation and the United States of America signed on 8 April in Prague, a new treaty on strategic offensive armaments. The two countries will continue to reduce their nuclear arsenals are not at the expense of safety and with a benefit to the economy. Furthermore, lecture is devoted to 65 anniversaries of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as well as 24 year anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster. This lecture is a continuation of a series of lectures Supercourse programs related to emergency events and epidemics. Such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, particularly dangerous viral diseases, terrorist attacks. More information is the site Supercourse - Also, by searching the Supercourse materials via the Internet or built-in search from the main pages Supercourse (Supercourse lectures only). All lectures and slides are available for training and dissemination of the term's non-commercial use. Lecture were translated into Chinese by Chinese Supercourse Team (send by Yingyun Yang). Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine, Supercourse, International Editorial Board

核能、核工厂、核弹、核医学以及核保护。 Reference :Wikipedia
As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world's energy and 15% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. In 2007, nuclear power's share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this was an earthquake in western Japan on 16 July 2007, which shut down all seven reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant. There were also several other reductions and "unusual outages" experienced in Korea and Germany. Also, increases in the Load factor for the current fleet of reactors appear to have plateau. The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—80% as of 2006. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs between European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use. In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by 2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion. Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A. International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems. Reference :Wikipedia

核能的历史 1898年, 法国物理学家Pierre Curie和他的妻子Maria Sklodowska-Curie
在沥青铀矿中发现了铀矿石，并发现其中有一种物质可以放射出大量的放射线，这种物质就被称为镭。 In the first decades of the twentieth century, physics was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of atoms. In 1898, French physicist Pierre Currie and his wife Maria Sklodowska-Curie had discovered that present in pitchblende, an ore of uranium, was a substance which emitted large amounts of radioactivity, which they named radium. This raised the hopes of both scientists and lay people that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be tapped. Pierre Curie Marie Curie, Sklodowska Reference :Wikipedia

核能的历史 1917年 Ernest Rutherford 因为分裂了原子而被称为核物理学之父。 1932年
John Cockcroft 和 Ernest Walton, 尝试用纯人工的方法分裂原子核，使用粒子加速器用质子炮轰锂原子产生两个氦核。 As the father of nuclear physics, Ernest Rutherford is credited with splitting the atom in 1917. His team in England bombarded nitrogen with naturally occurring alpha particles from radioactive material and observed a proton emitted with energy higher than the alpha particle. In 1932 two of his students John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton, working under Rutherford's direction, attempted to split the atomic nucleus by entirely artificial means, using a particle accelerator to bombard lithium with protons, thereby producing two helium nuclei. Ernest Rutherford Reference :Wikipedia

核能的历史 1932年 James Chadwick 发现中子。
1934年Enrico Fermi和他的同事使用质子炮轰铀原子，首次在罗马用纯实验手段达到了核分裂。 1938年, 德国化学家Otto Hahn和Fritz Strassmann，与奥地利物理学家Lise Meitner和Otto Robert Frisch一起指导中子撞击铀的实验。 James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, nuclear fission was first experimentally achieved by Enrico Fermi in 1934 in Rome, when his team bombarded uranium with neutrons. In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicists Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch, conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium. They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces, which was a surprising result. Numerous scientists, including Leo Szilard, who was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. This spurred scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) to petition their governments for support of nuclear fission research. Reference :Wikipedia

γ 两种基本类型的放射线颗粒状的辐射 α粒子 β粒子电磁辐射无线电波微波紫外线 Γ射线 X-射线
Radiation is a form of energy. There are two basic types of radiation. One kind is particulate radiation, which involves tiny fast-moving particles that have both energy and mass. Particulate radiation is primarily produced by disintegration of an unstable atom and includes Alpha and Beta particles. Alpha particles are high energy, large subatomic structures of protons and neutrons. They can travel only a short distance and are stopped by a piece of paper or skin. Beta particles are fast moving electrons. They are a fraction of the size of alpha particles, but can travel farther and are more penetrating. Particulate radiation is of secondary concern to industrial radiographers. Since these particles have weight and are relatively large, they are easily absorbed by a small amount of shielding. However, it should be noted that shielding materials, such as the depleted uranium used in many gamma radiography cameras, will be a source of Beta particles if the container should ever develop a leak. If a leak were to occur, the material could be transferred to the hands and other parts of a radiographer’s body, causing what is known as particulate contamination. This is the reason periodic “leak” and “wipe tests” are performed on equipment. The second basic type of radiation is electromagnetic radiation. This kind of radiation is pure energy with no mass and is like vibrating or pulsating waves of electrical and magnetic energy. Electromagnetic waves are produced by a vibrating electric charge and as such, they consist of both an electric and a magnetic component. In addition to acting like waves, electromagnetic radiation acts like a stream of small "packets" of energy called photons. Electromagnetic radiation travels in a straight line at the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s). γ

Alpha粒子 Alpha粒子 (记作 α ) 是一种原子核或者不稳定原子发出的电离波。他们是包含两个质子两个中子的原子内大碎片。
There are many alpha emitting radioactive elements, both natural and manmade. You can find fact sheets for several key alpha emitters at the Radionuclides page: Alpha粒子 Alpha粒子 (记作 α ) 是一种原子核或者不稳定原子发出的电离波。他们是包含两个质子两个中子的原子内大碎片。 Alpha 发射源原子序数镅-241 95 钚-236 94 铀-238 92 钍-232 90 镭-226 88 氡-222 86 钋-210 84 Ionizing Radiation Higher frequency ultraviolet radiation begins to have enough energy to break chemical bonds. X-ray and gamma ray radiation, which are at the upper end of magnetic radiation have very high frequency --in the range of 100 billion billion Hertz--and very short wavelengths--1 million millionth of a meter. Radiation in this range has extremely high energy. It has enough energy to strip off electrons or, in the case of very high-energy radiation, break up the nucleus of atoms. Ionization is the process in which a charged portion of a molecule (usually an electron) is given enough energy to break away from the atom. This process results in the formation of two charged particles or ions: the molecule with a net positive charge, and the free electron with a negative charge. Each ionization releases approximately 33 electron volts (eV) of energy. Material surrounding the atom absorbs the energy. Compared to other types of radiation that may be absorbed, ionizing radiation deposits a large amount of energy into a small area. In fact, the 33 eV from one ionization is more than enough energy to disrupt the chemical bond between two carbon atoms. All ionizing radiation is capable, directly or indirectly, of removing electrons from most molecules. Health Effects The health effects of alpha particles depend heavily upon how exposure takes place. External exposure (external to the body) is of far less concern than internal exposure, because alpha particles lack the energy to penetrate the outer dead layer of skin. However, if alpha emitters have been inhaled, ingested (swallowed), or absorbed into the blood stream, sensitive living tissue can be exposed to alpha radiation. The resulting biological damage increases the risk of cancer; in particular, alpha radiation is known to cause lung cancer in humans when alpha emitters are inhaled. The greatest exposures to alpha radiation for average citizens comes from the inhalation of radon and its decay products, several of which also emit potent alpha radiation. Protecting from external exposure to alpha radiation is easy, since alpha particles are unable to penetrate the outer dead layers of skin or clothing. However, tissue that is not protected by the outer layer of dead cells, such as eyes or open wounds, must be carefully protected. The exposure pathways of concern are inhalation or ingestion of alpha emitters, which continue to emit alpha particles. Alpha emitting radionuclide's taken into the body release alpha particles directly to sensitive living tissues. As their high energy transfers directly to tissue, it causes damage that may lead to cancer. The most significant way people come in contact with alpha emitters is in their home, school, or place of business. Radon, is a heavy gas and tends to collect in low-lying areas such as basements. Testing for radon in your home and taking any corrective action necessary is the most effective way to protect you and your family from alpha emitters.

Beta粒子氚钴-60 锶-90 锝-99 碘-129 碘-131 铯-137 β射线源:
Beta emitters have many uses, especially in medical diagnosis, imaging, and treatment: Iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid disorders, such as cancer and graves disease (a type of hyperthyroidism) Phosphorus-32 is used in molecular biology and genetics research. Strontium-90 is used as a radioactive tracer in medical and agricultural studies. Tritium is used for life science and drug metabolism studies to ensure the safety of potential new drugs. It is also used for luminous aircraft and commercial exit signs, for luminous dials, gauges and wrist watches. Carbon-14 is a very reliable tool in dating of organic matter up to 30,000 years old. Beta emitters are also used in a variety of industrial instruments, such as industrial thickness gauges, using their weak penetrating power to measure very thin materials. Health Effects of Beta particles Beta radiation can cause both acute and chronic health effects. Acute exposures are uncommon. Contact with a strong beta source from an abandoned industrial instrument is the type of circumstance in which acute exposure could occur. Chronic effects are much more common. Chronic effects result from fairly low-level exposures over a along period of time. They develop relatively slowly (5 to 30 years for example). The main chronic health effect from radiation is cancer. When taken internally beta emitters can cause tissue damage and increase the risk of cancer. The risk of cancer increases with increasing dose. Some beta-emitters, such as carbon-14, distribute widely throughout the body. Others accumulate in specific organs and cause chronic exposures: Iodine-131 concentrates heavily in the thyroid gland. It increases the risk of thyroid cancer and other disorders. Strontium-90 accumulates in bone and teeth.

Gamma射线 γ放射核素是应用最广泛的放射源。目前为止最有用的是以下三种：钴-60, 铯-137, 锝-99 m.
钴-60, 铯-137, 锝-99 m. γ射线是一群电磁波能量——光子。γ光子是电磁光谱中最有活力的光子。γ射线（γ光子）从不稳定的放射性原子核中发出来。 The properties of gamma radiation. Gamma radiation is very high-energy ionizing radiation. Gamma photons have about 10,000 times as much energy as the photons in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma photons have no mass and no electrical charge--they are pure electromagnetic energy. Because of their high energy, gamma photons travel at the speed of light and can cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before spending their energy. They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue. Very dense materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop gamma photons. Their wave lengths are so short that they must be measured in nanometers, billionths of a meter. They range from 3/100ths to 3/1,000ths of a nanometer. Gamma rays and x-rays, like visible, infrared, and ultraviolet light, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. While gamma rays and x-rays pose the same kind of hazard, they differ in their origin. Gamma rays originate in the nucleus. X-rays originate in the electron fields surrounding the nucleus or are machine-produced. Health Effects of Gamma Radiation Because of the gamma ray's penetrating power and ability to travel great distances, it is considered the primary hazard to the general population during most radiological emergencies. In fact, when the term "radiation sickness" is used to describe the effects of large exposures in short time periods, the most severe damage almost certainly results from gamma radiation. Protecting People from Gamma Radiation You need specialized equipment to detect gamma radiation. You cannot see, or feel radiation hitting your body. However, you should be familiar with radiation warning symbols. You can protect yourself by avoiding devices with this symbol, and not entering areas where the symbol is posted. In February of 2007, the United Nations introduced a new symbol to help reduce accidental exposure to large radioactive sources. The new icon is aimed at alerting anyone, anywhere to the potential dangers of being close to a large source of ionizing radiation.

高能放射源 There are many sources of harmful, high energy radiation. Industrial radiographers are mainly concerned with exposure from x-ray generators and radioactive isotopes. It is important to understand that eighty percent of human exposure comes from natural sources such as outer space, rocks and soil, radon gas, and the human body. The remaining twenty percent comes from man-made radiation sources, such as those used in medical and dental diagnostic procedures. One source of natural radiation is cosmic radiation. The earth and all living things on it are constantly being bombarded by radiation from space. The sun and stars emits EM radiation of all wavelengths. Charged particles from the sun and stars interact with the earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field to produce a shower of radiation, typically beta and gamma radiation. The dose from cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the world due to differences in elevation and the effects of the earth’s magnetic field. Radioactive material is also found throughout nature. It occurs naturally in soil, water, plants and animals. The major isotopes of concern for terrestrial radiation are uranium and the decay products of uranium, such as thorium, radium, and radon. Low levels of uranium, thorium, and their decay products are found everywhere. Some of these materials are ingested with food and water, while others, such as radon, are inhaled. The dose from terrestrial sources varies in different parts of the world. Locations with higher concentrations of uranium and thorium in their soil have higher dose levels. All people also have radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40 and carbon-14, inside their bodies. The variation in dose from one person to another is not as great as the variation in dose from cosmic and terrestrial sources. There are also a number of manmade radiation sources that present some exposure to the public. Some of these sources include tobacco, television sets, smoke detectors, combustible fuels, certain building materials, nuclear fuel for energy production, nuclear weapons, medical and dental X-rays, nuclear medicine, X-ray security systems and industrial radiography. By far, the most significant source of man-made radiation exposure to the average person is from medical procedures, such as diagnostic X-rays, nuclear medicine, and radiation therapy.

核能的历史在美国，第一座人造核反应堆——Chicago Pile-1, 在1942年12月2日实现。
这项工作是曼哈顿计划的一部分，他们在Hanford Site建造了大量的反应堆来生产钚以制造第一件核武器，而后者被使用在了广岛市和长崎。 In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on December 2, This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which built large reactors at the Hanford Site (formerly the town of Hanford, Washington) to breed plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons, which were used on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A parallel uranium enrichment effort also was pursued.

广岛市和长崎的核爆炸。图片拍摄于长崎爆炸时的广场上。 http://www.aviationexplorer.com/
On August 6, 1945, at 9:15 AM Tokyo time, a B-29 plane, the "Enola Gay" piloted by Paul W. Tibbets, dropped a uranium atomic bomb, code named "Little Boy" on Hiroshima, Japan's seventh largest city. In minutes, half of the city vanished. According to U.S. estimates, 60,000 to 70,000 people were killed or missing, 140,000 were injuried many more were made homeless as a result of the bomb. Deadly radiation reached over 100,000. In the blast, thousands died instantly. The city was unbelievably devastated. Of its 90,000 buildings, over 60,000 were demolished. Another bomb was assembled at Tinian Island on August 6. On August 8, Field Order No.17 issued from the 20th Air Force Headquarters on Guam called for its use the following day on either Kokura, the primary target, or Nagasaki, the secondary target. Three days after Hiroshima, the B-29 bomber, "Bockscar" piloted by Sweeney, reached the sky over Kokura on the morning of August 9 but abandoned the primary target because of smoke cover and changed course for Nagasaki. Nagasaki was an industrialized city with a natural harbor in Western Kuushu, Japan. At 11:02 a.m., this bomb, known as the "Fat Man" bomb, exploded over the north factory district at 1,800 feet above the city to achieve maximum blast effect. Buildings collapsed. Electrical systems were shorted. A wave of secondary fires resulted, adding to their holocaust. Flash burns from primary heat waves caused most of the casualties to inhabitants. Others were burned when their homes burst into flame. Flying debris caused many injuries. A fire storm of winds followed the blast at Hiroshima as air was drawn back to the center of the burning area. Trees were uprooted. The bomb took the lives of 42,000 persons and injured 40,000 more. It destroyed 39 percent of all the buildings standing in Nagasaki. According to U.S. estimates, 40,000 people were killed or never found as a result of the second bomb. Highly penetrating radiation from the nuclear explosion had a heavy casualty effect. Energy released by the explosion of this type of atomic bomb used over Nagasaki is roughly equivalent to the power generated by exploding 20,000 tons of TNT or 40 million pounds of TNT. It would fill two good sized cargo ships. In the early stages of the explosion, temperatures of tens of millions of degrees were produced. The light emitted is roughly ten times the brightness of the sun. During the explosion, various types of radiations such as gamma rays and alpha and beta particles eminate from the explosion. These radiative particles give the atomic bomb its greatest deadliness. They may last years or even centuries in dangerous amounts. Gamma radiation and neutrons caused thousands of cases of radiation sickness in Japan. First the blood was affected, and then the blood making organs were impaired including the bone marrow, the spleen and the lymph nodes. When radiation was severe, the organs of the body became necrotic within a few days, marking the victim for certain death within a short period of time. Surveys disclosed that severe radiation injury occurred to all exposed persons within a radius of one kilometer. Serious to moderate radiation injury occurred between one and two kilometers. Persons within two to four kilometers suffered slight radiation effects. What the bomb had produced was concentrated chaos, from which no city or nation could easily or rapidly recover. No significant repair or reconstruction was accomplished until months later. On September 2, the Japanese government, which had seemed ready to fight to the death, surrendered unconditionally. 图片拍摄于长崎爆炸时的广场上。

核能电能首先于1951年12月20日在Arco, Idaho旁边的EBR-I实验站的核反应堆中获得。在那里起初电产量约为 100 kW 。(1955年，Arco反应堆同时也是第一个实验部分核电厂反应炉核心熔毁的核电站). Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW (the Arco Reactor was also the first to experience partial meltdown, in 1955). In 1952, a report by the Paley Commission for President Harry Truman made a "relatively pessimistic" assessment of nuclear power, and called for "aggressive research in the whole field of solar energy.” A December 1953 speech by President Dwight Eisenhower, "Atoms for Peace," emphasized the useful harnessing of the atom and set the U.S. on a course of strong government support for international use of nuclear power. The idea behind the breeder is to maximize the useful energy that can be extracted from natural uranium. Inside a nuclear reactor, uranium-238 — the common form of the metal which cannot be used for fuel — can capture neutrons released during fission and transform into plutonium-239. This man-made element can fuel reactors, so breeding makes it possible to use virtually 100 percent of the energy in natural uranium. EBR-I provided the first proof that breeding is possible: On June 4, 1953, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission announced that EBR-I had become the world's first reactor to demonstrate the breeding of plutonium from uranium.

核能苏联也是世界的第一个核电站是1954年的5 MWe Obninsk 反应堆。 Obninsk 核能工厂
图片: Ilya Varlamov Russia's first nuclear power plant, and the first in the world to produce electricity, was the 5 MWe Obninsk reactor, in Russia's first two commercial-scale nuclear power plants started up in , then in the first of today's production models were commissioned. By the mid 1980s Russia had 25 power reactors in operation, but the nuclear industry was beset by problems. The Chernobyl accident led to a resolution of these, as outlined in the Appendix. Between the 1986 Chernobyl accident and mid 1990s, only one nuclear power station was commissioned in Russia, the 4-unit Balakovo, with unit 3 being added to Smolensk. Economic reforms following the collapse of the Soviet Union meant an acute shortage of funds for nuclear developments, and a number of projects were stalled. But by the late 1990s exports of reactors to Iran, China and India were negotiated and Russia's stalled domestic construction program was revived as far as funds allowed. Around 2000 nuclear construction revived and Rostov-1 (now known as Volgodonsk-1), the first of the delayed units, started up in 2001, joining 21 GWe already on the grid. This greatly boosted morale in the Russian nuclear industry. It was followed by Kalinin-3 in 2004. By 2006 the government's resolve to develop nuclear power had firmed and there were projections of adding 2-3 GWe per year to 2030 in Russia as well as exporting plants to meet world demand for some 300 GWe of new nuclear capacity in that time frame. In January 2010 the government approved the federal target program designed to bring a new technology platform for the nuclear power industry based on fast reactors. Rosatom's long-term strategy up to 2050 involves moving to inherently safe nuclear plants using fast reactors with a closed fuel cycle. Fossil fuels for power generation are to be largely phased out. AM-1反应堆于2002年被关闭。图片: Alexander Belenky / BFM.ru

核能工厂 2009年，即便考虑到安全与核废料的管理问题，世界上仍有15%的电能来源于核能。超过150艘核动力舰船被造出。
Nuclear power is power (generally electrical) produced from controlled (i.e., non-explosive) nuclear reactions. Commercial plants in use to date use nuclear fission reactions. Electric utility reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity. Today, more than 100 nuclear power plants provide 20 percent of the electricity consumed in the United States. More than 439 reactors provide some 17 percent of the world's electricity, and about 65 more plants are under construction around the world. In 2009, 15% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power, despite concerns about safety and radioactive waste management. Nuclear fusion reactions are widely believed to be safer than fission and appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult. Fusion power has been under intense theoretical and experimental investigation for many years. Both fission and fusion appear promising for some space propulsion applications in the mid- to distant-future, using low thrust for long durations to achieve high mission velocities. Radioactive decay has been used on a relatively small (few kW) scale, mostly to power space missions and experiments. International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems. nuclear propulsion

核能工厂包括中国、日本、印度和巴基斯坦等在内的很多国家仍然积极从事核能发展。
所有的积极研究包括了快速和热量技术，韩国和美国只研究热量技术，中国和南非发展PBMR的版本。 Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including China, India, Japan and Pakistan. all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South Africa and China, developing versions of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Several EU member states actively pursue nuclear programs, while some other member states continue to have a ban for the nuclear energy use. Japan has an active nuclear construction program with new units brought on-line in In the U.S., three consortia responded in 2004 to the U.S. Department of Energy's solicitation under the Nuclear Power 2010 Program and were awarded matching funds—the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized loan guarantees for up to six new reactors, and authorized the Department of Energy to build a reactor based on the Generation IV Very-High-Temperature Reactor concept to produce both electricity and hydrogen. As of the early 21st century, nuclear power is of particular interest to both China and India to serve their rapidly growing economies—both are developing fast breeder reactors. In the energy policy of the United Kingdom it is recognized that there is a likely future energy supply shortfall, which may have to be filled by either new nuclear plant construction or maintaining existing plants beyond their programmed lifetime. There is a possible impediment to production of nuclear power plants as only a few companies worldwide have the capacity to forge single-piece reactor pressure vessels, which are necessary in most reactor designs. Utilities across the world are submitting orders years in advance of any actual need for these vessels. Other manufacturers are examining various options, including making the component themselves, or finding ways to make a similar item using alternate methods. Other solutions include using designs that do not require single-piece forged pressure vessels such as Canada's Advanced CANDU Reactors or Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors.

核能工厂 The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2009 states that "even if Finland and France each builds a reactor or two, China goes for an additional 20 plants and Japan, Korea or Eastern Europe add a few units, the overall worldwide trend will most likely be downwards over the next two decades". With long lead times of 10 years or more, it will be difficult to maintain or increase the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years. The one exception to this outcome would be if operating lifetimes could be substantially increased beyond 40 years on average. This seems unlikely since the present average age of the operating nuclear power plant fleet in the world is 25 years. However, China plans to build more than 100 plants, while in the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have already been extended to 60 years, and plans to build more than 30 new ones are under consideration. Further, the U.S. NRC and the U.S. Department of Energy have initiated research into Light water reactor sustainability which is hoped will lead to allowing extensions of reactor licenses beyond 60 years, in increments of 20 years, provided that safety can be maintained, as the loss in non-CO2-emitting generation capacity by retiring reactors "may serve to challenge U.S. energy security, potentially resulting in increased greenhouse gas emissions, and contributing to an imbalance between electric supply and demand." In 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) predicted that nuclear power capacity could double by 2030, though that would not be enough to increase nuclear's share of electricity generation.

世界核反应堆分布

核燃料循环铀矿的采集与制粉转化与富集燃料棒的制备能量发起物再加工放射性废物处理商业产品含量水平低植物和地下储存水平高

核反应过程 Just as many conventional thermal power stations generate electricity by harnessing the thermal energy released from burning fossil fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy released from the nucleus of an atom, typically via nuclear fission. When a relatively large fissile atomic nucleus (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorbs a neutron, a fission of the atom often results. Fission splits the atom into two or more smaller nuclei with kinetic energy (known as fission products) and also releases gamma radiation and free neutrons. A portion of these neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and create more fissions, which release more neutrons, and so on. This nuclear chain reaction can be controlled by using neutron poisons and neutron moderators to change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fissions. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if unsafe conditions are detected. A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the plant, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work. Typically the hot coolant will be used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that boiler will power one or more steam turbine driven electrical generators. There are many different reactor designs, utilizing different fuels and coolants and incorporating different control schemes. Some of these designs have been engineered to meet a specific need. Reactors for nuclear submarines and large naval ships, for example, commonly use highly enriched uranium as a fuel. This fuel choice increases the reactor's power density and extends the usable life of the nuclear fuel load, but is more expensive and a greater risk to nuclear proliferation than some of the other nuclear fuels. A number of new designs for nuclear power generation, collectively known as the Generation IV reactors, are the subject of active research and may be used for practical power generation in the future. Many of these new designs specifically attempt to make fission reactors cleaner, safer and/or less of a risk to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Passively safe plants (such as the ESBWR) are available to be built and other designs that are believed to be nearly fool-proof are being pursued. Fusion reactors, which may be viable in the future, diminish or eliminate many of the risks associated with nuclear fission.

核武器的历史 The history of nuclear weapons chronicles the development of nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons are devices that possess enormous destructive potential derived from nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reactions. Starting with the scientific breakthroughs of the 1930s which made their development possible, and continuing through the nuclear arms race and nuclear testing of the Cold War, the issues of proliferation and possible use for terrorism still remain in the early 21st century. The first fission weapons, also known as "atomic bombs," were developed jointly by the United States, Britain and Canada during World War II in what was called the Manhattan Project to counter the assumed Nazi German atomic bomb project. In August 1945 two were dropped on Japan ending the Pacific War. An international team was dispatched to help work on the project. The Soviet Union started development shortly thereafter with their own atomic bomb project, and not long after that both countries developed even more powerful fusion weapons called "hydrogen bombs." During the Cold War, the Soviet Union and United States each acquired nuclear weapons arsenals numbering in the thousands, placing many of them onto rockets which could hit targets anywhere in the world. Currently there are at least nine countries with functional nuclear weapons. A considerable amount of international negotiating has focused on the threat of nuclear warfare and the proliferation of nuclear weapons to new nations or groups. There have been (at least) four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that resulted in the activation of either the US's or Russia's nuclear attack early warning protocols.

第一颗原子弹 The United States developed the first atomic weapons during World War II in co-operation with the United Kingdom and Canada as part of the Manhattan Project, out of the fear that Nazi Germany would develop them first. It tested the first nuclear weapon in 1945 ("Trinity"), and remains the only country to have used nuclear weapons against another nation, during the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was the first nation to develop the hydrogen bomb, testing an experimental version in 1952 ("Ivy Mike") and a deployable weapon in 1954 ("Castle Bravo"). Throughout the Cold War it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of Stockpile stewardship. The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("Joe-1") in 1949, in a crash project developed partially with espionage obtained during and after World War II (see: Soviet atomic bomb project). The USSR was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The direct motivation for their weapons development was the development of a balance of power during the Cold War. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb in 1955 ("RDS-37"). The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("Tsar Bomba"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, intentionally reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviets' weapons entered officially into the possession of Russia.

三位一体实验 By the beginning of World War II, there was concern among scientists in the Allied nations that Nazi Germany might have its own project to develop fission-based weapons. Organized research first began in Britain as part of the "Tube Alloys" project, and in the United States a small amount of funding was given for research into uranium weapons starting in 1939 with the Uranium Committee under Lyman James Briggs. At the urging of British scientists, though, who had made crucial calculations indicating that a fission weapon could be completed within only a few years, by 1941 the project had been wrested into better bureaucratic hands, and in 1942 came under the auspices of a Military Policy Committee led by General Leslie Groves as the Manhattan Project. Scientifically led by the American physicist Robert Oppenheimer, the project brought together the top scientific minds of the day (many exiles from Europe) with the production power of American industry for the goal of producing fission-based explosive devices before Germany could. Britain and the U.S. agreed to pool their resources and information for the project, but the other Allied power—the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin—was not informed. Until the atomic bomb could be tested, doubt would remain about its effectiveness. The world had never seen a nuclear explosion before, and estimates varied widely on how much energy would be released. Some scientists at Los Alamos continued privately to have doubts that it would work at all. There was only enough weapons-grade uranium available for one bomb, and confidence in the gun-type design was high, so on July 14, 1945, most of the uranium bomb ("Little Boy") began its trip westward to the Pacific without its design having ever been fully tested. A test of the plutonium bomb seemed vital, however, both to confirm its novel implosion design and to gather data on nuclear explosions in general. Several plutonium bombs were now "in the pipeline" and would be available over the next few weeks and months. It was therefore decided to test one of these. Robert Oppenheimer chose to name this the "Trinity" test, a name inspired by the poems of John Donne. The site chosen was a remote corner on the Alamagordo Bombing Range known as the "Jornada del Muerto," or "Journey of Death," 210 miles south of Los Alamos. The elaborate instrumentation surrounding the site was tested with an explosion of a large amount of conventional explosives on May 7. Preparations continued throughout May and June and were complete by the beginning of July. Three observation bunkers located 10,000 yards north, west, and south (right) of the firing tower at ground zero would attempt to measure key aspects of the reaction. Specifically, scientists would try to determine the symmetry of the implosion and the amount of energy released. Additional measurements would be taken to determine damage estimates, and equipment would record the behavior of the fireball. The biggest concern was control of the radioactivity the test device would release. Not entirely content to trust favorable meteorological conditions to carry the radioactivity into the upper atmosphere, the Army stood ready to evacuate the people in surrounding areas. On July 12, the plutonium core was taken to the test area in an army sedan (right). The non-nuclear components left for the test site at 12:01 a.m., Friday the 13th. During the day on the 13th, final assembly of the "Gadget" (as it was nicknamed) took place in the McDonald ranch house. By 5:00 p.m. on the 15th, the device had been assembled and hoisted atop the 100-foot firing tower. During the final seconds, most observers laid down on the ground with their feet facing the Trinity site and simply waited. At precisely 5:30 a.m. on Monday, July 16, 1945, the nuclear age began. While Manhattan Project staff members watched anxiously, the device exploded over the New Mexico desert, vaporizing the tower and turning the asphalt around the base of the tower to green sand. Seconds after the explosion came a huge blast wave and heat searing out across the desert. No one could see the radiation generated by the explosion, but they all knew it was there. The steel container "Jumbo," weighing over 200 tons and transported to the desert only to be eliminated from the test, was knocked ajar even though it stood half a mile from ground zero. As the orange and yellow fireball stretched up and spread, a second column, narrower than the first, rose and flattened into a mushroom shape, thus providing the atomic age with a visual image that has become imprinted on the human consciousness as a symbol of power and awesome destruction. About 40 seconds after the explosion, Fermi stood, sprinkled his pre-prepared slips of paper into the atomic wind, and estimated from their deflection that the test had released energy equivalent to 10,000 tons of TNT. The actual result as it was finally calculated -- 21,000 tons (21 kilotons) -- was more than twice what Fermi had estimated with this experiment and four times as much as had been predicted by most at Los Alamos. The next day, Stimson, informed that the uranium bomb would be ready in early August, discussed Groves's report at great length with Churchill. The British prime minister was elated and said that he now understood why Truman had been so forceful with Stalin the previous day, especially in his opposition to Russian designs on Eastern Europe and Germany. Churchill then told Truman that the bomb could lead to Japanese surrender without an invasion and eliminate the necessity for Russian military help. He recommended that the President continue to take a hardline with Stalin. Truman and his advisors shared Churchill’s views. The success of the Trinity test stiffened Truman's resolve, and he refused to accede to Stalin's new demands for concessions in Turkey and the Mediterranean. On July 24, Stimson met again with Truman. He told the President that Marshall no longer saw any need for Soviet help, and he briefed the President on the latest atomic situation. The uranium bomb might be ready as early as August 1 and was a certainty by August 10. The plutonium weapon would be available by August 6. Stimson continued to favor making some sort of commitment to the Japanese emperor, though the draft already shown to the Chinese was silent on this issue. Truman now had to decide how he would deliver the news of the atomic bomb to Stalin. Unbeknownst to Truman, the Soviet leader already knew. The success of the Trinity test meant that both types of bombs -- the uranium design, untested but thought to be reliable, and the plutonium design, which had just been tested successfully -- were now available for use in the war against Japan. Little Boy, the uranium bomb, was dropped first at Hiroshima on August 6, while the plutonium weapon, Fat Man, followed three days later at Nagasaki on August 9. Within days, Japan offered to surrender.

核弹 The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon ("Joe-1") in 1949, in a crash project developed partially with espionage obtained during and after World War II. The USSR was the second nation to have developed and tested a nuclear weapon. The direct motivation for their weapons development was the development of a balance of power during the Cold War. It tested its first megaton-range hydrogen bomb in 1955 ("RDS-37"). The Soviet Union also tested the most powerful explosive ever detonated by humans, ("Tsar Bomba"), with a theoretical yield of 100 megatons, intentionally reduced to 50 when detonated. After its dissolution in 1991, the Soviets' weapons entered officially into the possession of Russia. The device offically designated RDS-220, known to its designers as Big Ivan, and nicknamed in the west Tsar Bomba (and referred to as the Big Bomb by Sakharov in his Memoirs ) was the largest nuclear weapon ever constructed or detonated. This three stage weapon was actually a 100 megaton bomb design, but the uranium fusion stage tamper of the tertiary (and possibly the secondary) stage(s) was replaced by one(s) made of lead. This reduced the yield by 50% by eliminating the fast fissioning of the uranium tamper by the fusion neutrons, and eliminated 97% of the fallout (1.5 megatons of fission, instead of about 51.5 Mt), yet still proved the full yield design. The result was the "cleanest" weapon ever tested with 97% of the energy coming from fusion reactions. The effect of this bomb at full yield on global fallout would have been tremendous. It would have increased the world's total fission fallout since the invention of the atomic bomb by 25%. 沙皇炸弹

苏维埃原子弹: 1939-1955 Yuli Khariton, 苏维埃核武器计划之父之一。
Khariton是和Igor Kurchatov一起在1940年发起苏维埃核武器计划的物理学家的中坚力量。与1946年4月，他帮助在Sarov建立了秘密的核武器集团——Arzamas-16 (又叫做“Los Arzamas”)，并成为那里的科学主任长达45年之久。 The Soviet weapons program proper began in 1943 during World War II, under the leadership of physicist Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov. The program was initiated by reports collected by Soviet intelligence about the rapidly growing Manhattan Project in the U.S. It remained largely an intelligence operation until the end of the war, but it was a highly successful one, due to sympathies of many for the wartime Soviet Union fighting Nazi Germany; the socialist political sympathies of some; and the weak security screening program necessitated by the hasty assembly of the vast program. Klaus Fuchs, an important physicist at Los Alamos, was by far the most valuable contributor of atomic information. On 22 November 1955 the USSR conducted its first test of a multi-stage thermonuclear device. The device, the RDS-37, was designed as a nuclear gravity bomb with a full yield of about 3 megatons. The test version was modified to reduce the yield to an expected 1.45 megatons, to reduce the risk to the local population. It was airdropped from a Tupolev-95 bomber over Technical Area Sh ("Ground Zero") at the Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan. It detonated with a yield of 1.6 megatons at altitude of 1,550 meters. Civilians in nearby villages had been warned as a precaution, but one child who ran back into a house immediately after the detonation was killed when the blast wave arrived and caused the roof to collapse. Another 42 were injured by glass fragments. A trench collapsed onto soldiers observing the detonation at 36 km from ground zero, killing one from suffocation and causing contusions to five others.

核武器 From a high of 65,000 active weapons in 1985, there are now nearly 8,000 active nuclear warheads and about 23,300 total nuclear warheads in the world in Many of the "decommissioned" weapons were simply stored or partially dismantled, not destroyed. As of 2009, the total number was expected to continue to decline by 30%–50% over the next decade. The United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon ("Hurricane") in 1952, drawing largely on data gained while collaborating with the United States during the Manhattan Project. The United Kingdom was the third country in the world after the USA and USSR to develop and test a nuclear weapon. Its programme was motivated to have an independent deterrent against the USSR, while also maintaining its status as a great power. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1957, making it the third country to do so after the USA and USSR. The UK maintained a fleet of V-bomber strategic bombers and ballistic missile submarines equipped with nuclear weapons during the Cold War. It currently maintains a fleet of four 'Vanguard' class ballistic missile submarines equipped with Trident IISLBMs. The British government announced a replacement to the current system to take place between Throughout the Cold War it continued to modernize and enlarge its nuclear arsenal, but from 1992 on has been involved primarily in a program of Stockpile stewardship. France tested its first nuclear weapon in 1960 ("Gerboise Bleue"), based mostly on its own research. It was motivated by the Suez Crisis diplomatic tension vis-à-vis both the USSR and the Free World allies United States and United Kingdom. It was also relevant to retain great power status, alongside the United Kingdom, during the post-colonial Cold War. France tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1968 ("Opération Canopus"). After the Cold War, France has disarmed 175 warheads with the reduction and modernization of its arsenal that has now evolved to a dual system based on submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SSBN) and medium-range air-to-surface missiles (Rafale fighter-bombers). However new nuclear weapons are in development and reformed nuclear squadrons were trained during Enduring Freedom operation in Afghanistan. In January 2006, President Jacques Chirac stated a terrorist act or the use of weapons of mass destruction against France would result in a nuclear counterattack. Under NATO nuclear weapons sharing, the United States has provided nuclear weapons for Belgium, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Turkey to deploy and store. This involves pilots and other staff of the "non-nuclear" NATO states practicing handling and delivering the U.S. nuclear bombs, and adapting non-U.S. warplanes to deliver U.S. nuclear bombs. Until 1984 Canada also received shared nuclear weapons, and until 2001, Greece. Members of the Non-Aligned Movement have called on all countries to "refrain from nuclear sharing for military purposes under any kind of security arrangements.” The Institute of Strategic Studies Islamabad (ISSI) has criticized the arrangement for allegedly violating Article I and II of the NPT, arguing that "these Articles do not permit the NWS to delegate the control of their nuclear weapons directly or indirectly to others.” NATO has argued that the weapons' sharing is compliant with the NPT because "the U.S. nuclear weapons based in Europe are in the sole possession and under constant and complete custody and control of the United States." Nuclear weapons have been present in many nations, often as staging grounds under control of other powers. However, in only a few instances have nations given up nuclear weapons after being in control of them; in most cases this has been because of special political circumstances. The fall of the USSR, for example, left several former Soviet-bloc countries in possession of nuclear weapons. South Africa produced six nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but disassembled them in the early 1990s. In 1979, there was a putative detection of a clandestine nuclear test in the Indian Ocean, and it has long been speculated that it was possibly a test by South Africa, perhaps in collaboration with Israel, though this has never been confirmed. South Africa signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1991. Belarus had 81 single warhead missiles stationed on its territory after the Soviet Union collapsed in They were all transferred to Russia by Belarus has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Former Soviet countries Ukraine has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Ukraine inherited about 5,000 nuclear weapons when it became independent from the USSR in 1991, making its nuclear arsenal the third-largest in the world. By 1996, Ukraine had voluntarily disposed of all nuclear weapons within its territory, transferring them to Russia. Kazakhstan inherited 1,400 nuclear weapons from the Soviet Union, and transferred them all to Russia by Kazakhstan has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Canada Under NATO nuclear weapons sharing, Canada hosted nuclear weapons until 1984. Former NATO nuclear weapons sharing countries Greece Under NATO nuclear weapons sharing, Greece hosted nuclear weapons until 2001.

核武器 China tested its first nuclear weapon device in 1964 ("596") at the Lop Nur test site. The weapon was developed as a deterrent against both the United States and the Soviet Union. China would manage to develop a fission bomb capable of being put onto a nuclear missile only two years after its first detonation. It tested its first hydrogen bomb in 1967 ("Test No. 6"), a mere 32 months after testing its first nuclear weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development known in history). The country is currently thought to have had a stockpile of around 240 warheads, though because of the limited information available, estimates range from 100 to 400. China is the only nuclear weapons state to give an unqualified negative security assurance to non-nuclear weapon states and the only one to adopt a "no first use" policy. India is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. India tested what it called a "peaceful nuclear explosive" in 1974 (which became known as "Smiling Buddha"). The test was the first test developed after the creation of the NPT, and created new questions about how civilian nuclear technology could be diverted secretly to weapons purposes (dual-use technology). India's secret development caused great concern and anger particularly from nations that had supplied it nuclear reactors for peaceful and power generating needs such as Canada. It appears to have been primarily motivated as a general deterrent, as well as an attempt to project India as regional power. India later tested weaponized nuclear warheads in 1998 ("Operation Shakti"), including a thermonuclear device. Pakistan is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty either. Pakistan covertly developed nuclear weapons over many decades, beginning in the late 1970s. Pakistan first delved into nuclear power after the establishment of its first nuclear power plant near Karachi with equipment and materials supplied mainly by western nations in the early 1970s. Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto promised in 1965 that if India built nuclear weapons Pakistan would too, "even if we have to eat grass." The United States continued to certify that Pakistan did not possess nuclear weapons until 1990, when sanctions were imposed under the Pressler Amendment, requiring a cutoff of U.S. economic and military assistance to Pakistan. In 1998, Pakistan conducted its first six nuclear tests at the Chagai Hills, in response to the five tests conducted by India a few weeks before. Over the years, Pakistan has developed into a crucial nuclear power. It's also alleged that Pakistan is still drastically increasing its nuclear stockpile. North Korea was a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but announced a withdrawal on January 10, 2003 after the United States accused it of having a secret uranium enrichment program and cut off energy assistance under the 1994 Agreed Framework. In February 2005 they claimed to possess functional nuclear weapons, though their lack of a test at the time led many experts to doubt the claim. However, in October 2006, North Korea stated that due to growing intimidation by the USA, it would conduct a nuclear test to confirm its nuclear status. North Korea reported a successful nuclear test on October 9, 2006 (see 2006 North Korean nuclear test). Most U.S. intelligence officials believe that North Korea did, in fact, test a nuclear device due to radioactive isotopes detected by U.S. aircraft; however, most agree that the test was probably only partially successful. The yield may have been less than a kiloton, which is much smaller than the first successful tests of other powers; however, boosted fission weapons may have an unboosted yield in this range, which is sufficient to start deuterium-tritium fusion in the boost gas at the center; the fast neutrons from fusion then ensure a full fission yield. North Korea conducted a second, higher yield test on May 25, 2009 Israel is not a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and refuses to officially confirm or deny having a nuclear arsenal, or having developed nuclear weapons, or even having a nuclear weapons program. Israel has pledged not to be the first country to introduce nuclear weapons into the region, but is also pursuing a policy of strategic ambiguity with regard to their possession. Israel may have tested a nuclear weapon along with South Africa in 1979, but this has never been confirmed

核弹核俱乐部签署不扩散核武器条约的国家(中国，法国，俄罗斯英国，美国) 未签署不扩散核武器条约的国家(印度，北朝鲜，巴基斯坦)
签署不扩散核武器条约的国家(中国，法国，俄罗斯英国，美国) 未签署不扩散核武器条约的国家(印度，北朝鲜，巴基斯坦) 未公开核武器的国家 (以色列) 被怀疑拥有核武器或核计划的国家(伊朗，叙利亚) 北约武器共享与接受正式拥有核武器的国家 Nations that are known or believed to possess nuclear weapons are sometimes referred to as the nuclear club. There are currently nine states that have successfully detonated nuclear weapons. Five are considered to be "nuclear weapons states" (NWS), an internationally recognized status conferred by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). In order of acquisition of nuclear weapons these are: the United States, Russia (successor state to the Soviet Union), the United Kingdom, France, and China. List of states with nuclear weapons Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, three states that were not parties to the Treaty have conducted nuclear tests, namely India, Pakistan, and North Korea. North Korea had been a party to the NPT but withdrew in 2003. Israel is also widely believed to have nuclear weapons, though it has refused to confirm or deny this.[1] The status of these nations is not formally recognized by international bodies as none of them are currently parties to the NPT. South Africa has the unique status of a nation that developed nuclear weapons but has since disassembled its arsenal before joining the NPT. Map of nuclear weapons countries of the world. NPT Nuclear Weapon States (China, France, Russia, UK, US) Non-NPT Nuclear Weapon States (India, North Korea, Pakistan) Undeclared Nuclear Weapon States (Israel) States accused of having nuclear weapon programs (Iran, Syria) NATO weapons sharing weapons recipients States formerly possessing nuclear weapons The following is a list of states that have admitted the possession of nuclear weapons, the approximate number of warheads under their control in 2009, and the year they tested their first weapon. This list is informally known in global politics as the "Nuclear Club". With the exception of Russia and the United States (which have subjected their nuclear forces to independent verification under various treaties) these figures are estimates, in some cases quite unreliable estimates. Also, these figures represent total warheads possessed, rather than deployed. In particular, under the SORT treaty thousands of Russian and U.S. nuclear warheads are in inactive stockpiles awaiting processing. The fissile material contained in the warheads can then be recycled for use in nuclear reactors.

武器的发展 Weapons improvement
The first nuclear-tipped rockets, such as the MGR-1 Honest John, first deployed by the U.S. in 1953, were surface-to-surface missiles with relatively short ranges (around 15 mi/25 km maximum) with yields around twice the size of the first fission weapons. The limited range of these weapons meant that they could only be used in certain types of potential military situations—the U.S. rocket weapons could not, for example, threaten the city of Moscow with the threat of an immediate strike, and could only be used as "tactical" weapons (that is, for small-scale military situations). For "strategic" weapons—weapons which would serve to threaten an entire country—for the time being, only long-range bombers capable of penetrating deep into enemy territory would work. In the U.S. this resulted in the creation of the Strategic Air Command in 1946, a system of bombers headed by General Curtis LeMay (who had previously presided over the firebombing of Japan during WWII), which kept a number of nuclear-armed planes in the sky at all times, ready to receive orders to attack Moscow whenever commanded. Long-range bomber aircraft, such as the B-52 Stratofortress, allowed for a wide range of "strategic" nuclear forces to be deployed. These technological possibilities enabled nuclear strategy to develop a logic considerably different than previous military thinking had allowed. Because the threat of nuclear warfare was so awful, it was first thought that it might make any war of the future impossible. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's doctrine of "massive retaliation" in the early years of the Cold War was a message to the USSR, saying that if the Red Army attempted to invade the parts of Europe not given to the Eastern bloc during the Potsdam Conference (such as West Germany), nuclear weapons would be used against the Soviet troops and potentially the Soviet leaders. With the development of more rapid-response technologies (such as rockets and long-range bombers), this policy began to shift. If the Soviet Union also had nuclear weapons and a policy of "massive retaliation" was carried out, it was reasoned, then any Soviet forces not killed in the initial attack, or launched while the attack was ongoing, would be able to serve their own form of nuclear "retaliation" against the U.S. Recognizing this to be an undesirable outcome, military officers and game theorists at the RAND think tank developed a nuclear warfare strategy that would eventually become known as Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). MAD divided potential nuclear war into two stages: first strike and second strike. A first strike would be the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped nation against another nuclear-equipped nation. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, then a second strike could be deployed against the attacking nation. In this situation, whether the U.S. first attacked the USSR or the USSR first attacked the U.S., the end result would be that both nations would be damaged perhaps to the point of utter social collapse. Submarine launched ballistic missiles made defending against nuclear war an impossibility. According to game theory, because starting a nuclear war would be suicidal, no logical country would willfully enter into a nuclear war. However, if a country were capable of launching a first strike which would utterly destroy the ability of the attacked country to respond in kind, then the balance of power would be disturbed and nuclear war could then be safely undertaken. MAD played on two seemingly opposed modes of thought: cold logic and emotional fear. The phrase by which MAD was often known, "nuclear deterrence", was translated as "dissuasion" by the French and "terrorization" by the Russians. This apparent paradox of nuclear war was summed up by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill as "the worse things get, the better they are"—the greater the threat of mutual destruction, the safer the world would be. This philosophy made a number of technological and political demands on participating nations. For one thing, it said that it should always be assumed that an enemy nation may be trying to acquire "first strike capability," something which must always be avoided. In American politics this translated into demands to avoid "missile gaps" and "bomber gaps" where the Soviet Union could potentially "out shoot" American efforts (most of these supposed "gaps" proved to be political figments, but this hardly mattered at the time). It also encouraged the production of thousands of nuclear weapons by both the U.S. and the USSR, far more than would be needed to simply destroy the major civilian and military infrastructures of the opposing country. These policies and strategies were satirized in the 1964 Stanley Kubrick film Dr. Strangelove, in which the Soviets, unable to keep up with the US's first strike capability, instead plan for MAD by building a Doomsday Machine, and thus, after a (literally) mad US General orders a nuclear attack on the USSR, the end of the world is brought about. The policy also encouraged the development of the first early warning systems. Conventional war, even at its fastest, was fought over time scales of days and weeks. With long-range bombers, the time from the start of an attack to its conclusion was reduced to mere hours. With rockets, it could be reduced to minutes. It was reasoned that conventional command and control systems could not be expected to adequately respond to a nuclear attack, and so great lengths were taken to develop the first computers which could look for enemy attacks and direct rapid responses. With early warning systems, it was thought that the strikes of nuclear war would come from dark rooms filled with computers, not the battlefield of the wars of old. In the U.S., massive funding was poured into the development of SAGE, a system which would track and intercept enemy bomber aircraft using information from remote radar stations, and was the first computer system to feature real-time processing, multiplexing, and display devices—the first "general" computing machine, and a direct predecessor of modern computers.

通用核医学核医学是医学的一个分支，它使用小剂量的放射性物质诊断或治疗各种疾病
Nuclear medicine is a branch of medical imaging that uses small amounts of radioactive material to diagnose or treat a variety of diseases, including many types of cancers, heart disease and certain other abnormalities within the body. Nuclear medicine or radionuclide imaging procedures are noninvasive and usually painless medical tests that help physicians diagnose medical conditions. These imaging scans use radioactive materials called radiopharmaceuticals or radiotracers. Depending on the type of nuclear medicine exam you are undergoing, the radiotracer is either injected into a vein, swallowed or inhaled as a gas and eventually accumulates in the organ or area of your body being examined, where it gives off energy in the form of gamma rays. This energy is detected by a device called a gamma camera, a (positron emission tomography) PET scanner and/or probe. These devices work together with a computer to measure the amount of radiotracer absorbed by your body and to produce special pictures offering details on both the structure and function of organs and tissues. In some centers, nuclear medicine images can be superimposed with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to produce special views, a practice known as image fusion or co-registration. These views allow the information from two different studies to be correlated and interpreted on one image, leading to more precise information and accurate diagnoses. In addition, manufacturers are now making single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT) and positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) units that are able to perform both imaging studies at the same time. Nuclear medicine also offers therapeutic procedures such as radioactive iodine (I-131) therapy that uses radioactive material to treat cancer and other medical conditions affecting the thyroid gland. Nuclear medicine is a branch or specialty of medicine and medical imaging that uses radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) and relies on the process of radioactive decay in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. In nuclear medicine procedures, radionuclides are combined with other chemical compounds or pharmaceuticals to form radiopharmaceuticals. These radiopharmaceuticals, once administered to the patient, can localize to specific organs or cellular receptors. This unique ability of radiopharmaceuticals allow nuclear medicine to diagnose or treat a disease based on the cellular function and physiology rather than relying on the anatomy. Nuclear medicine is uniquely suited to tissue charac terisation, early assessment of the extent and severity of disease, and treatment of disease with specific ligands. The methods have wide clinical applications and potential for future developments, having already offered new insights in the understanding of the dementias, the spread of cancer, and the early detection of coronary-artery disease. What are the benefits vs. risks? Benefits The information provided by nuclear medicine examinations is unique and often unattainable using other imaging procedures. For many diseases, nuclear medicine scans yield the most useful information needed to make a diagnosis or to determine appropriate treatment, if any. Nuclear medicine is less expensive and may yield more precise information than exploratory surgery. Risks Because the doses of radiotracer administered are small, diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures result in low radiation exposure, acceptable for diagnostic exams. Thus, the radiation risk is very low compared with the potential benefits. Nuclear medicine diagnostic procedures have been used for more than five decades, and there are no known long-term adverse effects from such low-dose exposure. Allergic reactions to radiopharmaceuticals may occur but are extremely rare and are usually mild. Nevertheless, you should inform the nuclear medicine personnel of any allergies you may have or other problems that may have occurred during a previous nuclear medicine exam. Injection of the radiotracer may cause slight pain and redness which should rapidly resolve. Women should always inform their physician or radiology technologist if there is any possibility that they are pregnant or if they are breastfeeding their baby..

世界不同国家消耗的能量 Reference: IEA

在 2015-2030 年间计划使用核能的国家拉丁美洲: 3 + 2 计划中建设 (智利，秘鲁)
西欧: 9 + 3计划建设 (意大利，葡萄牙，土耳其) 东欧: 计划建设 (白俄罗斯，哈萨克斯坦，波兰) 非洲: 1 + 5计划建设 (阿尔及利亚，埃及，利比亚，摩洛哥，突尼斯) 中东 & 南亚: 3 + 1计划建设 (孟加拉国) 东南亚 & 太平洋: 0 + 4计划建设 (澳大利亚，印度尼西亚，马来西亚，泰国) 远东: 3 + 3计划建设 (北朝鲜，菲律宾，越南) Future of the industry In total about 21 new countries are considering to start using nuclear energy during Diablo Canyon Power Plant in San Luis Obispo County, California, USA As of 2007, Watts Bar 1, which came on-line in February 7, 1996, was the last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line. This is often quoted as evidence of a successful worldwide campaign for nuclear power phase-out. However, even in the U.S. and throughout Europe, investment in research and in the nuclear fuel cycle has continued, and some nuclear industry experts predict electricity shortages, fossil fuel price increases, global warming and heavy metal emissions from fossil fuel use, new technology such as passively safe plants, and national energy security will renew the demand for nuclear power plants. According to the World Nuclear Association, globally during the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average, and by the year 2015 this rate could increase to one every 5 days. Many countries remain active in developing nuclear power, including China, India, Japan and Pakistan. all actively developing both fast and thermal technology, South Korea and the United States, developing thermal technology only, and South Africa and China, developing versions of the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor (PBMR). Several EU member states actively pursue nuclear programs, while some other member states continue to have a ban for the nuclear energy use. Japan has an active nuclear construction program with new units brought on-line in In the U.S., three consortia responded in 2004 to the U.S. Department of Energy's solicitation under the Nuclear Power 2010 Program and were awarded matching funds—the Energy Policy Act of 2005 authorized loan guarantees for up to six new reactors, and authorized the Department of Energy to build a reactor based on the Generation IV Very-High-Temperature Reactor concept to produce both electricity and hydrogen. As of the early 21st century, nuclear power is of particular interest to both China and India to serve their rapidly growing economies—both are developing fast breeder reactors. (See also energy development). In the energy policy of the United Kingdom it is recognized that there is a likely future energy supply shortfall, which may have to be filled by either new nuclear plant construction or maintaining existing plants beyond their programmed lifetime. There is a possible impediment to production of nuclear power plants as only a few companies worldwide have the capacity to forge single-piece reactor pressure vessels, which are necessary in most reactor designs. Utilities across the world are submitting orders years in advance of any actual need for these vessels. Other manufacturers are examining various options, including making the component themselves, or finding ways to make a similar item using alternate methods. Other solutions include using designs that do not require single-piece forged pressure vessels such as Canada's Advanced CANDU Reactors or Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors. This graph illustrates the potential rise in CO2emissions if base-load electricity currently produced in the U.S. by nuclear power were replaced by coal or natural gas as current reactors go offline after their 60 year licenses expire. Note: graph assumes all 104 American nuclear power plants receive license extensions out to 60 years. The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2009 states that "even if Finland and France each builds a reactor or two, China goes for an additional 20 plants and Japan, Korea or Eastern Europe add a few units, the overall worldwide trend will most likely be downwards over the next two decades". With long lead times of 10 years or more, it will be difficult to maintain or increase the number of operating nuclear power plants over the next 20 years. The one exception to this outcome would be if operating lifetimes could be substantially increased beyond 40 years on average. This seems unlikely since the present average age of the operating nuclear power plant fleet in the world is 25 years. However, China plans to build more than 100 plants, while in the US the licenses of almost half its reactors have already been extended to 60 years, and plans to build more than 30 new ones are under consideration. Further, the U.S. NRC and the U.S. Department of Energy have initiated research into Light water reactor sustainability which is hoped will lead to allowing extensions of reactor licenses beyond 60 years, in increments of 20 years, provided that safety can be maintained, as the loss in non-CO2-emitting generation capacity by retiring reactors "may serve to challenge U.S. energy security, potentially resulting in increased greenhouse gas emissions, and contributing to an imbalance between electric supply and demand." In 2008, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) predicted that nuclear power capacity could double by 2030, though that would not be enough to increase nuclear's share of electricity generation. Reference: IAEA

天然能源的相对储量煤炭 - 8,7% U ,7% 天然气 - 3,4% 石油 ,8% U ,4%

不同地区的核能 KWh/cap (2007) Reference: IEA

核灾害主要是核战争；军事冲突中发生的核爆炸；针对少量特殊目标的军事核打击 (被称为“外科手术”)；恐怖分子制造核爆炸摧毁城市；
在有人居住的地区造成显著的核污染；意外暴露的核武器或其他核武器发生的意外；民用核设施发生的严重意外，例如核电站。 Nuclear catastrophes may be of different types. A rough taxonomy lists, in a rough order of decreasing impact: (1) a major nuclear war involving a large number (hundredths, thousands) of nuclear explosions; (2) a military conflict in which few (say, a one-digit number of) nuclear explosions take place, mainly against civilian targets (cities); (3) the military (so-called “surgical”) employment of few nuclear explosions against specific targets, such as deeply-buried bunkers housing key installations, trying to minimize “collateral damage” to civilians; (4) the destruction of a city by a nuclear explosion produced by a terrorist commando; (5) the deliberate radioactive contamination on a significant scale of an inhabited area (so-called “dirty nuclear bomb” or, more properly, “radioactive dispersion device”); (6) the accidental explosion of a nuclear weapon, or other accidents involving nuclear weapons; (7) a serious accident in a civilian nuclear installation, typically in an electricity-producing nuclear reactor. Terse mention of the risk of nuclear-weapon proliferation, a topic that should never be forgotten given its impact on the future of our civilization inasmuch as it largely influences the likelihood that some of the catastrophes listed above shall eventually happen; and with the opposite prospect of progress towards the achievement of a nuclear-weapon free world.

核灾害与放射性灾害放射性灾害 – 马亚克灾难
Nuclear and radiation accidents may be of various types. An example of nuclear accident might be one in which a reactor core is damaged such as in the Chernobyl Disaster in 1986, while an example of a radiation accident might be some event such as a radiography accident where a worker drops the source into a river. In the period to 2007, sixty-three major nuclear accidents have occurred at nuclear power plants. Twenty-nine of these have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and 71 percent of all nuclear accidents (45 out of 63) occurred in the United States, challenging the notion that severe nuclear accidents cannot happen within the United States or that they have not happened since Chernobyl. Radiation accidents are more common than nuclear accidents, and are often limited in scale. For instance at Soreq, a worker suffered a dose which was similar to one of the highest doses suffered by a worker on site at Chernobyl on day one. However, because the gamma source was never able to leave the 2-metre thick concrete enclosure, it was not able to harm many others. Other serious nuclear and radiation accidents include the Mayak disaster, Soviet submarine K-431 accident, Soviet submarine K-19 accident, Chalk River accidents, Windscale fire, Three Mile Island accident, Costa Rica radiotherapy accident, Zaragoza radiotherapy accident, Goiania accident, Church Rock Uranium Mill Spill and the SL-1 accident.

核灾害与放射性灾害三英里岛核泄漏（NPP）, 1979
On March 29, 1979, there was a cooling system malfunction that caused a partial melt-down of the reactor core. This loss of coolant accident resulted in the release of a significant amount of radioactivity, estimated at 43,000 curies (1.59 PBq) of radioactive krypton gas, but less than 20 curies (740 GBq) of the especially hazardous iodine-131, into the surrounding environment. The nuclear power industry claims that there were no deaths, injuries or adverse health effects from the accident, but a peer-reviewed study by Steven Wing of the University of North Carolina found that lung cancer and leukemia rates were 2 to 10 times higher downwind of TMI than upwind, and also showed that there was plant and animal chromosomal damage, but without considering the effects of stress or improved screening. In addition, the Radiation and Public Health Project reported a spike ininfant mortality in the downwind communities two years after the accident. The incident was widely publicized nationally and internationally, and had far-reaching effects on public opinion, particularly in the United States.

核灾害与放射性灾害 1986年4月26 普里皮亚, 乌克兰. 灾难发生后的核反应堆. 第4反应器 (中间). 涡轮室(左下).
第3反应器(右中) 1986年4月26 Nuclear and radiation accidents may be of various types The worst nuclear accident is the Chernobyl disaster which occurred in 1986 in Kiev, Ukraine. Radioactive fallout from the accident concentrated near Belarus, Ukraine and Russia and at least 350,000 people were forcibly resettled away from these areas. After the accident, "traces of radioactive deposits unique to Chernobyl were found in nearly every country in the northern hemisphere". The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Northern Europe. Rain contaminated with radioactive material fell as far away as Ireland. Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people. According to official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus. The accident raised concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry as well as nuclear power in general, slowing its expansion for a number of years while forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive. The countries of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and health care costs of the Chernobyl accident. It is difficult to accurately quantify the number of deaths caused by the events at Chernobyl, as over time it becomes harder to determine whether a death has been caused by exposure to radiation. 普里皮亚, 乌克兰. Jason Minshull摄

切尔诺贝利灾难 Chernobyl disaster
The 2005 report prepared by the Chernobyl Forum, led by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO), attributed 56 direct deaths (47 accident workers and nine children with thyroid cancer) and estimated that there may be 4,000 (questioned, could be higher) extra cancer deaths among the approximately 600,000 most highly exposed people. Although the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone and certain limited areas remain off limits, the majority of affected areas are now considered safe for settlement and economic activity Twenty-nine major nuclear accidents have occurred since the Chernobyl disaster, and 71 percent of all nuclear accidents (45 out of 63) occurred in the United States, challenging the notion that severe nuclear accidents cannot happen within the United States or that they have not happened since Chernobyl.

切尔诺贝利灾难乌克兰，俄罗斯和白俄罗斯在广大领域采取了出色的预防措施，以减少受辐射的人口。超过15万人被转移。
Chernobyl disaster

切尔诺贝利灾难为了解决这些问题，各国在科学、经济和人道主义方面共同努力，成功的评估了切尔诺贝利灾难的对人们健康的影响，并防止了未来可能发生的负面影响。 Chernobyl disaster The suspected medical effects of the Chernobyl disaster are being studied: Ukrainian-American study of leukemia and related diseases in clean-up workers. (RCRM of the AMS of Ukraine, NCI, USA) Franco-German study of leukemia incidence in children and adults in several oblasts in Ukraine. (RCRM of the AMS of Ukraine) International Consortium For Research on the Health Effects of Radiation case-control study of childhood leukemia in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Ukraine-Belarus-USA study on childhood thyroid cancer. (Institute of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Kiev, Ukraine, NCI, USA) The Ukrainian/American Chernobyl Ocular Study (UACOS) Preliminary study on the feasibility of case-control studies of breast cancer among residents of contaminated regions of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. IARC and ICRHER

今天的切尔诺贝利切尔诺贝利迎来了大量西方国家的游客 http://www.travelling.kiev.ua
Chernobyl massively rushed tourists from western countries. Chernobyl attracts more tourists from around the world. At 7 thousand travelers visited the area in 2009, curiosity was stronger than the fear of radiation, wrote in the new issue of the Journal reporter. More and more tourists from the United States, Britain, Germany, Poland, Finland and other countries seeking to visit the crash site at the plant. The interest of tourists from the West, fueled magazine Forbes, recognizing the Chernobyl accident in November last year, the most exotic place for tourism on the Earth and putting the area on a par with Antarctica and North Korea, it says. Foreigners, as well as tourists, Koreans, gradually overcoming the fear of possible remnants of the radiation exposure, have begun to visit Chernobyl since 1990. In 2002, the UN report was released, according to which in most places of the exclusion zone now can be found without much harm to the organism

今天，“掩体”是一类可以进行表面储存（临时储存）自发放射性废料的场所
“掩体”配备有监控其中放射强度的系统还有建筑物的控制系统 At the moment the "Shelter" is equipped with systems that monitor the radiological situation inside this facility, as well as control systems of building structures. It should be noted that the object "Shelter" is not only the destroyed reactor of Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Under the object "Shelter" means: the destroyed Block B second stage of Chernobyl - the fourth block; constructions built around the destroyed reactor, de aerator and what not machine room, part of block B, part of the block, the composition of the object "Shelter" also includes a local area, which is an area adjacent to the object - a protected zone, which is equipped with monitoring systems and surveillance. The structure of the shelter system, and includes elements designed to carry out works to maintain the object in a safe condition.? That is, at this time the shelter is destroyed severe accident 4-th block of the Chernobyl NPP, which has lost all functionality of the unit and on which implementation of priority activities to reduce the effects of the accident and which continue to ensure nuclear and radiation safety. Current activities at the Shelter is to provide protection for the Chernobyl NPP exclusion zone personnel, population and environment from radiation hazards, which is conditioned by the presence of the Shelter of nuclear and radiation-hazardous materials.? More details on the status of the Shelter "You can find here -

核灾害与放射性灾害核动力飞机 Nuclear accidents are classified either as "loss of control" (loss of regulation) accidents in which an uncontrolled chain reaction may occur, or as "loss of coolant accidents". There have been ten nuclear accidents in the entire period that Soviet nuclear submarines have been in operation, one of which occurred in 1970 during the construction of K-329, a vessel of the Charlie-I class. There were two incidents during refueling operations on K-11 and K-431, another during repairs of a naval reactor at the shipyard (K-140), one during modifications of the submarine (K-222), four during operations at sea, and one during reactor shut down (K-314). Two of the accidents occurred on Pacific Fleet submarines, seven at the Northern Fleet, and one at the shipbuilding yard in Nizhny Novogorod. . Following air accidents U.S. nuclear weapons have been lost near Atlantic City, New Jersey (1957); Savannah, Georgia (1958) (see Tybee Bomb);Goldsboro, North Carolina (1961); off the coast of Okinawa (1965); in the sea near Palomares, Spain (1966) (see 1966 Palomares B-52 crash); and near Thule, Greenland (1968) (see 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash). Most of the lost weapons were recovered, the Spanish device after three months' effort by the DSV Alvin and DSV Aluminaut. The Soviet Union was less forthcoming about such incidents, but the environmental group Greenpeace believes that there are around forty non-U.S. nuclear devices that have been lost and not recovered, compared to eleven lost by America, mostly in submarine disasters. The U.S. has tried to recover Soviet devices, notably in the 1974 Operation Jennifer using the specialist salvage vessel Hughes Glomar Explorer. On January 27, 1967, more than 60 nations signed the Outer Space Treaty, banning nuclear weapons in space. The end of the Cold War failed to end the threat of nuclear weapon use, although global fears of nuclear war reduced substantially.

恐怖袭击的风险 (工业的新挑战) 9/11 飞机飞过 Indian Point

富集和燃料加工的风险最大的水和电力用户工人们患癌症和白血病制作炸弹的材料有被盗的风险.
Paducah, KY, Oak Ridge, TN, Portsmouth, OH 工人们患癌症和白血病火灾和大面积暴露。俄克拉荷马的卡伦丝绸木加工厂。制作炸弹的材料有被盗的风险.

有三个因素影响你在放射性物质中的暴露程度
距离掩体 It is important to distinguish between direct and indirect exposure to radiation and exposure through radiological contamination. A person exposed to a medical X ray receives direct radiation, but the body is not radioactively contaminated. Radioactive contamination occurs when radioactive particles are deposited on a person's skin and can be absorbed through the skin or by inhalation or ingestion. These considerations form the basis of emergency planning as well as the protective actions taken to ensure the health and safety of the public after an accidental radiological release. What can I do to minimize radiation exposure? There are three factors that affect your body’s exposure to radiation: time, distance, and shielding. Time - All radioactivity loses its strength with time: some of it within days or less, some of it over years. Limiting the time spent near the source of radiation reduces the amount of radiation exposure you will receive. Following an accident, local authorities will monitor any release of radiation and determine the level of protective actions and when the threat has passed. Distance - The more distance between you and the source of the radiation, the less radiation you will receive. In the most serious nuclear power plant accident, local officials will likely call for an evacuation, thereby increasing the distance between you and the radiation. Shielding - The heavy, dense materials between you and the source of the radiation will provide shielding from the radiation and reduce exposure to the radiation. This is why local officials may advise you to remain indoors if an accident occurs. Buildings protect from radioactive fallout by isolation (like an umbrella “shields” us from rain) and ensure distance between you and the radioactive materials. Sources: Federal Emergency Management Agency Environmental Protection Agency National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 时间

核保护 Radiation protection, sometimes known as radiological protection, is the science of protecting people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation, which includes both particle radiation and high energy electromagnetic radiation. Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, but presents a significant health hazard. It causes microscopic damage to living tissue, resulting in skin burns and radiation sickness at high exposures and cancer, tumors and genetic damageat low exposures.

核保护 There are four standard ways to limit exposure:
Time: For people who are exposed to radiation in addition to natural background radiation, limiting or minimizing the exposure time will reduce the dose from the radiation source. Distance: Radiation intensity decreases sharply with distance, according to an inverse square law. Air attenuates alpha and beta radiation. Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete, or water give effective protection from radiation formed of energetic particles such as gamma rays and neutrons. Some radioactive materials are stored or handled underwater or by remote control in rooms constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead. There are special plastic shields which stop beta particles and air will stop alpha particles. The effectiveness of a material in shielding radiation is determined by its halve value thicknesses, the thickness of material that reduces the radiation by half. This value is a function of the material itself and the energy and type of ionizing radiation. Containment: Radioactive materials are confined in the smallest possible space and kept out of the environment. Radioactive isotopes for medical use, for example, are dispensed in closed handling facilities, while nuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple barriers which keep the radioactive materials contained. Rooms have a reduced air pressure so that any leaks occur into the room and not out of it. In a nuclear war, an effective fallout shelter reduces human exposure at least 1,000 times. Other civil defense measures can help reduce exposure of populations by reducing ingestion of isotopes and occupational exposure during war time. One of these available measures could be the use of potassium iodide (KI) tablets which effectively block the uptake of radioactive iodine into the human thyroid gland.

奥巴马，梅德韦杰夫签署裁武条约 2010年4月8日美国和俄罗斯在布拉格签署关于战略进攻性武器的新条约。
Most are now discussing the world's news: the United States and Russia signed on 8 April in Prague, a new treaty on strategic offensive armaments. The two countries will continue to reduce their nuclear arsenals are not at the expense of safety and with benefit to the economy. Russia and the U.S. have been negotiating a new treaty on strategic offensive weapons from last year. This topic is raised and at the London Summit in April 2009, and three months later, in July, at a meeting of Dmitry Medvedev and Barack Obama in Moscow. Old START expire on December 5, but until that time could not agree. The understanding was, but there were differences in detail. Today a telephone conversation the two presidents had high expectations, both in Moscow and Washington. Hopes dashed: the new treaty will be signed on 8 April in Prague. The news, which immediately became the main world news. The British newspaper The Independent has called this arrangement "is perhaps the most important agreement between the former superpower rivals, since the end of the Cold War." Sergey Lavrov, the foreign minister: "At today's call, U.S. and Russian presidents have been expressed mutual satisfaction with the outcome of the negotiation process. It was possible to solve the main problem: an absolutely equal basis with the principle of equal and indivisible security agreement on actual reductions in strategic offensive arms." Barak Obama, U.S. President: "By signing this treaty, Russia and the United States - the two largest nuclear powers in the world - make clear their willingness to abide by their commitments and strengthen the efforts for nuclear nonproliferation and expect that other countries would honor their commitments . I want to express my gratitude to President Dmitry Medvedev for his personal involvement in our work on this project. " Under the new treaty between Moscow and Washington should maintain nuclear parity, close to absolute. Nuclear arsenals will be reduced not only in comparison with the old START in 1991, they decreased by one third compared to the "ceiling" set by the Moscow Treaty, which was signed in 2002, Vladimir Putin and George W. Bush. Now the nuclear potentials of the two countries are estimated at about a 2150 ready to launch warheads at U.S. and from Russia. There will be no more than 1,550 in each of the parties. The total number of launchers for intercontinental ballistic missiles, ballistic missiles on submarines and nuclear bombers should not exceed 800 units - is considering how detailed that is combat-ready and non-deployed, mothballed in storage. Nikolai Makarov, Chief of General Staff of the Armed Forces: the START II Treaty provides for access to the technical parameters established for 7 years. Arrangements with the U.S. START remove mutual concerns and fully meet Russia's security interests. " In the new document are registered, including those provisions which have not been able to agree last year. Everything that concerns the exchange of data, inspection and verification procedures, measures for alterations and the elimination of nuclear warheads. Will be established Bilateral Consultative Commission that will facilitate the implementation of the treaty. Another important point - in the text stipulates that both Russia and the U.S. must deploy strategic nuclear weapons solely on its territory. That is, Cuban missile crisis will not recur. Andranik Migranyan, a political scientist: "Reaching agreement on START is further proof that Washington and Moscow have a policy of restarting. Dimitri Simes: "This contract underlines the special relationship and the special responsibilities of the United States and Russia, stressed that Russia remains a great nuclear power and that the U.S. understands that relations with Russia are unique to this nuclear option, than with any other country." The value of the contract can not be overemphasized. First, it is in fact, not in words helps to build confidence between Russia and the U.S.. Secondly, it reaffirms the commitment of the two countries agreed on non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. Thirdly, it is important too - cuts in START would greatly relieve the budget. The contract will be concluded for 10 years, if during this time will not be accepted a new agreement - to further reduce nuclear arsenals. Gregory Emelianov 2010年4月8日美国和俄罗斯在布拉格签署关于战略进攻性武器的新条约。

参考文献 Kiev Pittsburgh Cairo Tokyo Novosibirsk
emilms.fema.gov/IS3/FEMA_IS/is03/REM htm Federal Emergency Management Agency Environmental Protection Agency National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Tokyo Novosibirsk

U.S. Government References to Radiation – PowerPoint Files Bookmarks 作者: Eric Marler M.D.
All U.S. Governemt Agencies CDC - Centers for Disease Control Conferences DHHS - Department of Health and Human Services DHS - Department of Homeland Security DOC - Department of Commerce DOD - Deoartment of Defense DOE - Department of Energy DOT - Department of Transportation EPA - Environmental Protection Agency FDA - Food and Drug Administration HUD - Deparment of Housing and Urban Development Laboratories NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administrtion NIH - National Institutes of health NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency NRC - Nuclear Regulatory Commission OSHA - Occuational Safety and Health State of California State of Massaschusetts State of Michigan State of New Hampshire State of New Jersey State of New York State of Washington Statea of Virginia USDA - Department of Agriculture Date: April 10, 2010 Author: Eric Marler M.D. Number of PowerPoint Lectures All U.S. Government – 6750 Federal Government e.g. CDC – 139 Conf – 647 DHHS – 5 DHS - 2 DOC – 6 DOD – 391 DOE – 109 DOT - 8 EPA – 151 FDA – 111 HUD 1 Labs – 351 NASA – 420 NOAA – 776 NRC – 21 OSHA – 10 USDA – 30 State Goverment e.g. California – 42 Massachusetts – 19 Michigan – 19 New Hampshire – 2 New Jersey – 2 Nevada – 11 Virginia – 52 Washington - 18 55

Nuclear Disaster Radiation PowerPoint Lectures Google Web Search 作者: Eric Marler M.D.
Chernobyl Crimes involving Radioactive Materials Criticality Accidents Decay Heat Design Basis Accident International Atomic Energy Agency List of Civilian radiation accidents List of Military radiation accidents Loss of Coolant Accidents Lost Source of Radiation Nuclear meltdown Nuclear Regulatory Commission Radiation Health Effects +Training - Radiation Health Effects Radiation Poisoning Radiation therapy OR Radiotherapy Radioactive Contamination Radioactive Waste Radioactivity in the Life Sciences Transport Accidents Nuclear OR Radiation Transport Accidents Radioactive World Association of Nuclear Operators World Institute for Nuclear Security Keywords adapted from Author: Eric Marler M.D. Date: April 7, 2010 Prepared for the Supercourse in Epidemiology and Public Health 56

我们所知道的核能? Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine,

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我们所知道的核能? Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine,

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Presentation on theme: "我们所知道的核能? Borys Ledoshchuk, Professor, MD, PhD, Kiev, Ukraine,"— Presentation transcript:

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