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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College—North Harris 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to Studying the Human Body Classification of Living Things Humans and many other animals are vertebrates Characterized by a segmented vertebral column Common characteristics suggest the same path in evolution Homeostasis The goal of physiological regulation and the key to survival in a changing environment
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life Anatomy Is the oldest medical science 1600 B.C. Physiology Is the study of function Biochemistry Biology Chemistry Genetics
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success Study Strategies Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course Set up a study schedule and stick to it Do not procrastinate Approach the information in different ways Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-3 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Describes the structures of the body What they are made of Where they are located Associated structures Physiology Is the study of: Functions of anatomical structures Individual and cooperative functions
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines large, visible structures Surface anatomy: exterior features Regional anatomy: body areas Systemic anatomy: organ systems Developmental anatomy: from conception to death Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules Cytology: study of cells and their structures cyt- = cell Histology: study of tissues and their structures
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology Physiology Cell physiology: processes within and between cells Organ physiology: functions of specific organs Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Chemical (or Molecular) Level Atoms are the smallest chemical units Molecules are a group of atoms working together The Cellular Level Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together The Tissue Level A tissue is a group of similar cells working together The Organ Level An organ is a group of different tissues working together
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ System Level An organ system is a group of organs working together Humans have 11 organ systems The Organism Level A human is an organism
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Chemical and Molecular Levels Cellular Level Atoms in combination Complex protein molecule Protein filaments Heart muscle cell
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization Tissue Level Organ Level Cardiac muscle tissue The heart The cardiovascular system Organ system level Organism level
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Integumentary Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Skeletal Major Organs Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Muscular Major Organs Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Nervous Major Organs Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves Sense organs Functions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Organ Systems Endocrine Major Organs Pituitary gland Pancreas Gonads Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development Thyroid gland Adrenal glands 1-5 Levels of Organization
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Cardiovascular Major Organs Heart Blood Blood vessels Functions Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Lymphatic Major Organs Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Major Organs Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Respiratory Functions Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Major Organs Teeth Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Digestive Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Urinary Major Organs Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Functions Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Major Organs Testes Epididymides Ductus deferentia Seminal vesicles Prostate gland Penis Scrotum
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Male Reproductive Functions Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones Sexual intercourse
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Major Organs Ovaries Uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Labia Clitoris Mammary glands
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-5 Levels of Organization The Organ Systems Female Reproductive Functions Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery Provides milk to nourish newborn infant Sexual intercourse
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis All body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance)
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-6 Homeostasis Mechanisms of Regulation Autoregulation (intrinsic) Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change Extrinsic regulation Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-6 Homeostasis Receptor Receives the stimulus Control center Processes the signal and sends instructions Effector Carries out instructions
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature Normal condition disturbed Information affects RECEPTOR Thermometer HOMEOSTASIS STIMULUS: Room temperature rises Normal room temperature RESPONSE: Room temperature drops CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) Normal condition restored EFFECTOR Air conditioner turns on Sends commands to 20°30°40° In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi- tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. With this regulatory system, room temperature fluctuates around the set point. Air conditioner turns on Air conditioner turns off Time Room temperature (°C) 22 Normal range
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Negative Feedback The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature Normal temperature disturbed Information affects RECEPTORS Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus HOMEOSTASIS STIMULUS: Body temperature rises Normal body temperature RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops CONTROL CENTER Normal temperature restored EFFECTORS Sweat glands in skin increase secretion Blood vessels in skin dilate Sends commands to Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 1 2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. The thermoregulatory center keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2°C. Vessels dilate, sweating increases Vessels constrict, sweating decreases Time Body temperature (°C) 37.2 Normal range 37 36.7 Thermoregulatory center in brain
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback The Role of Positive Feedback The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting Clotting accelerates Positive feedback loop Blood clot Chemicals This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding. As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. Damage to cells in the blood vessel wall releases chemicals that begin the process of blood clotting. Chemicals
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback Systems Integration Systems work together to maintain homeostasis Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium Opposing forces are in balance Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation Physiological systems work to restore balance Failure results in disease or death
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Locating structures on or near the body surface Anatomical Landmarks Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Superficial Anatomy Anatomical Landmarks References to palpable structures Anatomical Regions Body regions Abdominopelvic quadrants Abdominopelvic regions Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Cephalic or head Frontal or forehead Cranial or skull Facial or face Oral or mouth Mental or chin Axillary or armpit Brachial or arm Antecubital or front of elbow Umbilical or navel Trunk Abdominal (abdomen) Mammary or breast Thoracic or thorax, chest Cervical or neck Buccal or cheek Otic or ear Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Anterior view
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks Antebrachial or forearm Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Pollex or thumb Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Patellar or kneecap Crural or leg Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Tarsal or ankle Anterior view Hallux or great toe Pedal or foot Femoral or thigh Pubic (pubis) Inguinal or groin Manual or hand Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Acromial or shoulder Olecranal or back of elbow Dorsal or back Upper limb Cervical or neck Cephalic or head Posterior view
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks Posterior view Lumbar or loin Gluteal or buttock Popliteal or back of knee Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Lower limb Upper limb
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Right hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Right inguinal region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions. Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region Left inguinal region Epigastric region Umbilical region Hypogastric (pubic) region
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions Stomach Spleen Urinary bladder Liver Gallbladder Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here.
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-7 Directional References Cranial Posterior or dorsal Anterior or ventral Caudal A lateral view. Superior Right Left Lateral Proximal Medial Proximal Distal Inferior An anterior view. Arrows indicate important directional terms used in this text; definitions and descriptions are given in Table 1 2.
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-2 Directional Terms
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-8 Anatomical Terminology Sectional Anatomy Planes and sections Plane: a three-dimensional axis Section: a slice parallel to a plane Used to visualize internal organization and structure Important in radiological techniques MRI PET CT
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Frontal plane Transverse plane Sagittal plane
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities Essential Functions of Body Cavities 1. Protect organs from accidental shocks 2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Provides protection Allows organ movement Linings prevent friction Ventral Body Cavity Thoracic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Surrounds right lung Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Mediastinum Right Pleural Cavity Peritoneal Cavity Surrounds left lung Subdivides during development into Surrounds heart Pericardial Cavity Contains many digestive glands and organs Abdominal Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Pelvic Cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract Left Pleural Cavity
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities Serous Membranes Line body cavities and cover organs Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer Parietal layer — lines cavity Visceral layer — covers organ
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Thoracic Cavity Right and left pleural cavities Contain right and left lungs Mediastinum Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions POSTERIORANTERIOR Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Thoracic cavity Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Visceral pericardium Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Heart Air space Balloon
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions Spinal cord Mediastinum Parietal pleura Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Right lung POSTERIOR Left lung ANTERIOR
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic cavity Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity — superior portion Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones Contains digestive organs Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract
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© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. 1-9 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity Pelvic cavity — inferior portion Within pelvic bones Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
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