2. Honors Biology

4. Heart Approximately the size of your fist Weighs less than a pound 5 Liters of blood is pumped through 60 000 miles of blood vessels per minute Beats ~100 000 times a day

5. Heart Covering Pericardium Protects and anchors heart Prevents overfilling Heart Wall Epicardium - visceral layer of the serous pericardium Myocardium – cardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart Endocardium – lines the heart chambers and continues with endothelial lining of blood vessels

6. External Heart: Major Vessels of the Heart Superior & inferior venae cava Right and left pulmonary veins Pulmonary trunk (splits into right & left pulmonary arteries) Ascending aorta (3 branches) – brachiocephalic, carotid, & subclavian arteries

8. Atria of the Heart Atria are the receiving chambers of the heart Blood enters right atria from superior & inferior venae cava & coronary sinus Blood enters left atria from pulmonary veins Ventricles of the Heart Ventricles are the discharging chambers Papillary muscles mark ventricular walls Interventricular septum separate ventricles Right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk Left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta

11. Pathway of Blood through the Heart and Lungs (Pulmonary & Systemic Circuits) Pulmonary Circuit Right atrium  tricuspid valve  right ventricle Right ventricle  pulmonary semilunar valve  pulmonary arteries  lungs Systemic Circuit Lungs  pulmonary veins  left atrium Left atrium  bicuspid valve  left ventricle Left ventricle  aortic semilunar valve  aorta Aorta  systemic circulation

14. Microscopic Heart Muscle Anatomy Cardiac muscle is striated, short, fat, branched, and interconnected Intercalated discs anchor cardiac cells together & allow free passage of ions Heart muscle behaves as a functional syncytium

15. Cardiac Cycle Cardiac cycle refers to all events associated with blood flow through the heart The cardiac cycle has two phases: Systole (contraction) Diastole (relaxation)

16. Cardiac Conduction

17. Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) Electrical activity is recorded by electrocardiogram (EKG) P wave corresponds to depolarization of SA node & atria (ATRIAL SYSTOLE) QRS complex corresponds to ventricular depolarization (VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE & ATRIAL DIASTOLE) T wave corresponds to ventricular repolarization (VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE) Atrial repolarization record is masked by the larger QRS complex

18. Abnormal ECG Deflection Wave Patterns Sinus Bradycardia Rate = 40-59 b.p.m.

19. Sinus Tachycardia Rate = 101-160 b.p.m. Causes CHF, hypoxia, pulmonary edema Increased temperature Stress or response to pain

20. Sinus Arrest Causes Myocarditis MI Digitalis toxicity

21. Atrial Flutter Rate = 250-350 b.p.m. Precipitates CHF

22. Atrial Fibrillation (afib) Causes COPD CHF

23. Ventricular Tachycardia (V-tac) Causes CAD Acute MI Digitalis toxicity CHF Rate = 100-220 b.p.m.

24. Ventricular Fibrillation (V-fib) Causes Acute MI

25. Asystole

27. The 3 major types of vessels Arteries – carry blood away from the heart Veins – carry blood toward the heart Capillaries – contact tissue cells (Serving cellular needs)

28. Capillaries · Very narrow (10 µm diameter, the red blood cells that travel through capillaries are 6 µm in diameter). Capillaries are made of thin endothelial cells (one layer thick)

31. The high hydrostatic pressure on the arterial side squeezes water and nutrients out of the capillaries. Water leaving the capillaries builds up the osmotic pressure because the blood components have become more concentrated. Towards the venal end, water and waste materials are sucked into capillaries by the osmotic pressure.

38. What Causes Varicose Veins?

39. How to treat varicose veins Compression Stockings Sclerotherapy Ablation or Laser treatment (Both use heat)

40. Cardiovascular System

41. 1. Transports Dissolved gasses Nutrients Waste products to lungs and kidneys Enzymes Hormones from endocrine organs 2. Regulates pH Electrolyte concentration of body fluids Body temperature 3. Restricts fluid loss 4. Defends pathogens and toxins

43. 1. Formed elements Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets 2. Plasma

45. Blood leaves the heart via arteries that branch repeatedly until they become capillaries Oxygen (O 2 ) and nutrients diffuse across capillary walls and enter tissues Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and wastes move from tissues into the blood Oxygen-deficient blood leaves the capillaries and flows in veins to the heart This blood flows to the lungs where it releases CO 2 and picks up O 2 The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart

46. Sticky, opaque fluid with a metallic taste Color varies from scarlet (oxygen-rich) to dark red (oxygen-poor) pH of blood is 7.35–7.45 Temperature is 38  C, slightly higher than “normal” body temperature Blood accounts for approximately 8% of body weight Average volume of blood is 5–6 L for males, and 4–5 L for females

47. Plasma accounts for 55 % of the volume of whole blood. 92% of plasma is water, the rest consists of electrolytes and dissolved organic compounds. Blood plasma contains over 100 solutes, including: Proteins – albumin, globulins, clotting proteins, etc… Non-protein nitrogenous substances – lactic acid, urea, creatinine Organic nutrients – glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids Electrolytes – sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), calcium (Ca ++ ), chloride (Cl - ), bicarbonate (HCO 3 - ) Respiratory gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide

48. Biconcave discs RBCs have no nuclei or organelles (anucleate) allow for a huge surface area to volume ratio Hematocrit – % of RBCs out of the total blood volume. (Ave) 46 adult men & 42 adult women. There are roughly 5 million RBCs in each microliter of blood Erythrocytes are unable to perform normal maintenance operations and usually degenerate after about 120 days in the circulation.

51. Blood Type Rh TypePercent A +34 % -6 % B +9 % -2 % AB +3 % -1 % O +38 % -7 %

53. Erythroblastosis Fetalis

54. Normal response to bacterial or viral invasion Move through tissue spaces Granular leukocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Neutrophils are abundant, highly mobile phagocytes. Eosinophils are attracted to foreign compounds coated with antibodies. Basophils migrate into damaged tissues and release histamine, aiding in the inflammation response. Monocytes migrating into peripheral tissues become free macrophages. Lymphocytes, cells of the lymphatic system, include T cells and B cells. T cells migrate to peripheral tissues and attack foreign or abnormal cells; B cells produce antibodies.

57. The coagulation process requires calcium ions, and Vitamin K must be available for the synthesis of five of the clotting factors.