1. ---Listing ---Exemplification ---Comparison and Contrast ---Cause and Effect ---Classification ---Definition Common Methods of Paragraph Development

2. Reading and Reciting Studies have indicated a number of values to reading and reciting, as opposed to reading alone. For one thing, when you read something with the knowledge that you must soon recite what you have read, you are more likely to be motivated to remember and less likely to become inattentive. For another, recitation provides immediate knowledge of results, so that you can see how well you are doing and adjust and modify your responses accordingly. Finally, recitation provides active practice in recalling the material you wish ultimately to retain. Listing: Presenting Facts One by One

3. Transitions for Listing for one thing for another to begin with first second also besides moreover finally one another still another …

4. Television Television presents a vivid world in front of us. For example, TV can keep us informed of what is happening throughout the world. For another example, with a TV set at home, we can visit a great many tourist attractions in different countries. Besides, TV brings various forms of entertainments to our homes such as sports competitions, concerts. The pictures on TV look so real that we feel as if the events were taking place right before our eyes. Exemplification: Demonstrating Our Ideas

5. Compare the following two passages about the same topic and decide which is better and explain why. A What Is Language? A language is a signaling system which employs symbolic vocal sounds. Let us take a closer look at this definition, for it is language above all else which serves to distinguish humans from other animals. Other animals, it is true, can communicate by means of cries. Such cries, nevertheless, lack a number of the central attributes of language. Humans through their capacity replace one word with another to form an infinite variety of utterances capable of conveying far more information than the cries of animals. The number of utterances available through speech is limitless. In contrast, those of animals are confined to a fixed number of set sequences.

6. B What Is Language? A language is a signaling system which employs symbolic vocal sounds. Let us take a closer look at this definition, for it is language above all else which serves to distinguish humans from other animals. Other animals, it is true, can communicate by means of cries. (For example, dogs may bark at intruders, cats hiss at rivals, lambs bleat for attention of their mothers.) Such cries, nevertheless, lack a number of the central attributes of language that enables us to divide a human utterance into words. Humans through their capacity replace one word with another to form an infinite variety of utterances capable of conveying far more information than the cries of animals.

7. (For instance, human warnings can convey far more precisely the nature of the threat they point to than can the single warning screech a bird has in its repertoire. “Look out, someone is stealing your bag!” does not sound too different from “Look out, someone is stealing your bike!” yet they carry far more specific information than any animal could capture in its cries.) The number of utterances available through speech is limitless. In contrast, those of animals are confined to a fixed number of set sequences. (The tit can be taken as a case in point, being limited to about twenty different calls. This limitation is in itself an explanation of why animals’ cries tend to be very general in meaning and lack the speaking ability to convey highly specific information.)

8. Transitions for Exemplification for example (instance) for another example a case in point one example is… another example is… also furthermore moreover besides in addition...

9. Practice 1.Use listing or exemplification to develop one of the following topic sentences into a paragraph. 1) Increasing your vocabulary can help you in a number of ways. 2) In the modern world, we can acquire the latest information by various means. 3) This term several useful and interesting courses have been offered. 2. Exemplify the impact of computer science on people’s life.

10. Comparison and Contrast: Using Familiar Things to Explain the Unfamiliar Two basic steps ---identifying the points for comparison and contrast ---choose an effective way to organize the similarities and differences Two basic ways subject-by-subject ; point-by-point

11. Subject-by-subject organization General statement: (There are differences or similarities between A and B.) Subject A: (Characteristics) Subject B: (Characteristics)

12. Example Both Professor Yang and Professor Wu are my favorite teachers, yet they teach with very different styles. Professor Yang, a 30-year-old female, likes to get her students involved in class discussion. Thus, her class is usually lively and stimulating. She also likes to use TV, CD, and other modern technology to assist classroom instruction. Since she doesn't give any homework, your grade in her class depends mainly on two or three big exams. And make no mistake about it, she is a tough grader! (continued)

13. Professor Wu, on the other hand, is almost the opposite of Professor Yang. A 50-year-old male, Professor Wu tends to lecture all the way through a class, but his solid knowledge, clear organization, and occasional humor keep you from dozing off. He also likes to write the key points of his lecture on the board to facilitate students’ note-taking. While he gives lots of homework and administers frequent small exams, he can be really generous in grading. The two professors have one thing in common, though, they both are excellent teachers. That’s perhaps why despite the differences in their teaching style, I enjoy their classes very much and never get bored. (end)

14. Point-by-point organization General statement: (There are differences or similarities between A and B.) Subject A: (Characteristic 1) Subject A: (Characteristic 2) Subject A: (Characteristic 3) Subject B: (Characteristic 1) Subject B: (Characteristic 2) Subject B: (Characteristic 3)

15. Example A number of differences between small and large organizations are readily discernible. In the small organization communication takes place principally through personal contacts. In the large organization communication is likely to be more bureaucratic and impersonal, operating through official channels with messages arriving from remote centers of power. In the small enterprise you can see the results of your efforts, albeit over a small area, immediately. In the large organization the reverse holds true. Your orders can be aimed at covering a far greater area of activity, but your ability to monitor how well your instructions are being implemented is reduced. In the small business you are likely to gain a variety of experience in many areas. In the large company you are likely to specialize in one. In the former you face the danger of being a Jack-of-all-traders but master of none, in the latter the risk of knowing more and more about less and less.

16. General statement: There are basic differences between the small and large organizations. Organization A: small Characteristic 1: Communication through personal contact Organization A: small Characteristic 2: One can see the result of his effort immediately. Organization A: small Characteristic 3: One gains a variety of experience in many areas. Organization A: small Characteristic 4: Danger of becoming a jack-of-all-trades but master of none. Organization B: large Characteristic 1: Communication is more bureaucratic and impersonal. Organization B: large Characteristic 2: One’s action covers a much greater area but his effectiveness is reduced. Organization B: large Characteristic 3: One is likely to specialize in one area. Organization B: large Characteristic 4: Risk of knowing more and more about less and less. Analysis

17. Transitions for Comparison and Contrast first, second, third, similar to, similarly, likewise, like, the same as, besides, in fact, moreover, furthermore, in addition, accordingly, correspondingly, equally important, at the same time, in the same way (manner) on the contrary, yet different from, whereas, on the other hand, unlike, but, while, despite, in contrast, although, nevertheless, in spite of, more…than, instead, however, conversely, not so…as

18. Practice 1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate transitions for comparison and contrast. There are both similarities and differences between the tourist- attracting countries, Italy and Greece. __1___, both the Italians and Greeks are friendly, gregarious people. __2___, the antiquities of both countries are fascinating; Rome’s Coliseum and Athens’ Parthenon are two of the world’s great sights. ___3____, both countries offer comfortable tourist accommodations. ____4___, the luxury hotels in Rome and Athens are excellent. ___5__, there are important contrasts between Italy and Greece. Dining in Italy can be a memorable experience, ___6__ food in Greece tends to be wholesome but plain. And the look of each country is different. The Italian countryside is green and lush. __7__, the Greek terrain is dry and desert-like. __8___ the elegant Italian signor or signorina, the Greek citizen dresses and lives more simply. ___9___ these differences, though, a tourist can expect a delightful holiday in either country.

19. 2. Develop one of the following topics into a paragraph. A. An ocean and a lake B. Visiting the beach and visiting the mountain C. Living in the city and living in the country D. Eating jiaozi: steamed or boiled E. The words “Yes” and “No” in two different cultures

20. Warm-up exercise Study the following sentences of causal relationship. e.g. The war started because of the desperate economic situation. (E) (C) Cause and Effect: One Thing Leading to Another

21. 1. Prices rose. As a result fewer goods were sold. 2. The dispute was caused by miscommunication between the two parties. 3. Heat causes iron to expand. 4. That box must be handled with care as there are glasses in it. 5. He passed the test due to hard work.

22. Two basic ways to express the cause-and- effect relationship --- “effect-cause” order: stating an effect first and then devoting the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes

23. Example Why Languages Change There are many reasons why languages change. To start with, various languages that start from the same parent developed their own uniqueness after speakers drifted away from one another to establish isolated, independent communities. Language change is also due to the influence of and interactions with foreign cultures, often as a result of military conquest. Another cause for language change is rapidly expanding technology and new systems of communication. They bring all cultures and languages into closer contact and borrowing between languages has become a common phenomenon in the contemporary world. All languages change as the experiences of their speakers change.

24. ---“cause-effect” order: stating a cause and then mentioning or predicting the effects Example Earthquakes and Destruction Every year, earthquakes are responsible for a large number of deaths and vast amount of destruction in various parts of the world. Some of the destruction is directly caused by the quake itself. An example of this is the collapse of buildings as a result of vibration. Other damage results from landslides, large ocean waves or major fires which are initiated by the quake.

25. Transitions for Cause and Effect the effect, the cause of, because, because of, the result, the reason for, as a result, as, as a result of, the consequence, therefore, since, on account of, so, now (that), owing to, as a consequence, bring about, produce, result from, result in, lead to, cause, consequently, accordingly, because of this, thus, hence, for this reason

26. Practice 1.Make a cause-and-effect study of the worsening environment. 2. Develop the following topic sentence into a paragraph of about 150 words. Students’ failure to pass through college education is due to a variety of causes. 3. Write an essay of about 250 words on the topic “Why People Opt for a Single Life.”

27. To classify is to sort things into categories according to characteristics. Classification: Breaking Subjects into Parts Steps to classify: ---define a subject ---divide it into major categories based on a common trait or certain standards or principles ---arrange the categories or subcategories in a logical sequence

28. An effective classification should be: ---consistent ---complete ---significant

29. Examples: 1. Rivers can be classified into wide ones, narrow ones, long ones, short ones, deep ones and shallow ones. 2. College students can be divided into freshmen, sophomore, junior and senior. 3. Traffic can be divided into land, air and water communications and so on.

30. Parallelism is essential to a good classification. Compare the following two classifications and decide which is effective and which is not and explain why. Sports can be classified into track and field events, swimming, ball games, gymnastics, etc. Sports can be classified into jumping, ball games, running, floor exercise and backstroke.

31. Example There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers—unread, untouched. (This deluded individual owns woodpulp and ink, not books.) The second has a great many books—a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as they were bought. (This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance.) The third has a few books or many—every one of them dog- eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. (This man owns books.)

32. Practice 1.Write a paragraph of classification by expanding the following outline. Topic: My Roommates Among them are: A. considerate ones B. messy ones C. bossy ones D. loners

33. 2. Write a paragraph of classification on any of the following topics. 1) the parks you have been to 2) the books you like to read 3) the movies you have seen 4) the sports you enjoy 3. Use classification to develop the following topic sentence into a paragraph. Sentences may be classified into three types according to the number and types of clauses contained in them.

34. Three basic ways to define a word or term ---to give a synonym ---to use a sentence ---to write a paragraph or even an essay Definition: Clarifying Our Ideas

35. A formal logical definition should —Not contain any synonyms or derivations of the word being defined —Not contain words that are ambiguous, figurative, or obscure —Use the same parts of speech as the term we are defining —Be positive

36. Practice: Examine the following sentences and explain why they are not formal logical definitions. 1. A beautiful man is one who is usually attractive. 2. To be ironic is to speak with a forked tongue. 3. Swimming is when you propel yourself through the water with parts of your body. 4. A whale is a big animal that lives on the ocean and is not a fish.

37. To make a precise formal definition, an extended definition is required. The most common ways to expand a concept: ---by example and analogy ---by comparison and contrast ---by classification and division ---by negation ---by process analysis ---by causal analysis ---by giving background of the term …

38. Read the following passage carefully and try to define the technique or techniques the writer uses to explain the term “simile”. What is a Simile One of the chief kinds of figurative language is the simile. A simile is the direct comparison of two objects, qualities, or concepts for the sake of attributing a characteristic of one to the other. A simile is an open or obvious comparison; it always uses the words “like” or “as”. Thus, “My love is like a red, red rose” is a simile, so are “sly as a fox”, and “white as snow”. (continued)

39. In every simile, some concrete action or object (e.g. a rose, a fox, snow) is used for an outstanding quality (beauty, slyness, white), and any object directly compared with one of these (e.g. my love) is assumed to share that quality. Poets are fond of such comparisons, because they permit an extensive comparison in a few words. Burns’ tribute to his sweetheart asserts that she is beautiful, fresh, young, and sweet-smelling, simply by comparing her to a “red, red rose”. Properly used, a simile can make many positive comparisons in a few words. (end)

40. Questions about the passage: 1.Which sentence gives a definition to “simile”? 2.What is the difference between simile and other direct comparisons? 3.What is the form of simile? 4.What are the characteristics of simile?

41. A “liberated woman” is simply a woman who controls her own life, rather than allowing it to be controlled by other people, traditions, or expectations. A “liberated woman” can be found pursuing any line of work, including housework, or no work at all. She may or may not be married; she may or may not have borne children. She may belong to any race; she may have attained any age. She may be poor or wealthy, educated or illiterate. She need have only one trait in common with her “liberated sisters”: she makes her own choices, whether they can be the colors on her walls or the advanced degrees she seeks. She acts of her own volition, responsible to herself, and not out of fear of what her mother, lover, or neighbor might say. A passage for appreciation

42. Practice 1. Use definition to develop the following topic into a paragraph. Generation Gap 2. Define any of the following topics from your own experience or observation in the form of paragraphs. 1) the Chinese saying “show off one’s skills with an ax before Lu Ban” 2) “Master Dongguo” 3) superstition 4) friendship