1. The EM algorithm for Mixture of Gaussians & Classification with Generative models Jakob Verbeek December 2, 2011 Course website: http://lear.inrialpes.fr/~verbeek/MLCR.11.12.php

2. Clustering with k-means and MoG Assignment: – K-means: hard assignment, discontinuity at cluster border – MoG: soft assignment, 50/50 assignment at midpoint Cluster representation – K-means: center only – MoG: center, covariance matrix, mixing weight If all covariance matrices are constrained to be and then EM algorithm = k-means algorithm For both k-means and MoG clustering – Number of clusters needs to be fixed in advance – Results depend on initialization, no optimal learning algorithms – Can be generalized to other types of distances or densities

3. Mixture of Gaussian (MoG) density Mixture density is weighted sum of Gaussians – Mixing weight: importance of each cluster Density has to integrate to 1, so we require

4. Clustering with Gaussian mixture density Given: data set of N points x n, n=1,…,N Find mixture of Gaussians (MoG) that best explains data – Maximize log-likelihood of fixed data set X w.r.t. parameters of MoG – Assume data points are drawn independently from MoG MoG clustering very similar to k-means clustering – In addition to centers also represents cluster shape: cov. matrix – Also an iterative algorithm to find parameters – Also sensitive to initialization of paramters

5. Maximum likelihood estimation of MoG No simple equation as in the case of a single Gaussian Use EM algorithm – Initialize MoG: parameters or soft-assign – E-step: soft assign of data points to clusters – M-step: update the cluster parameters – Repeat EM steps, terminate if converged Convergence of parameters or assignments E-step: compute posterior on z given x: M-step: update Gaussians from data points weighted by posterior

6. Maximum likelihood estimation of MoG Example of several EM iterations

8. Entropy of a distribution Entropy captures uncertainty in a distribution – Maximum for uniform distribution – Minimum, zero, for delta peak on single value Connection to information coding (Noiseless coding theorem, Shannon 1948) – Frequent messages short code, optimal code length is (at least) -log p bits – Entropy: expected code length Suppose uniform distribution over 8 outcomes: 3 bit code words Suppose distribution: 1/2,1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/64, 1/64, 1/64, 1/64, entropy 2 bits! Code words: 0, 10, 110, 1110, 111100, 111101,111110,111111 Codewords are “self-delimiting”: – code is of length 6 and starts with 4 ones, or stops after first 0. Low entropyHigh entropy

9. Kullback-Leibler divergence Asymmetric dissimilarity between distributions – Minimum, zero, if distributions are equal – Maximum, infinity, if p has a zero where q is non-zero Interpretation in coding theory – Sub-optimality when messages distributed according to q, but coding with codeword lengths derived from p – Difference of expected code lengths – Suppose distribution q: 1/2,1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/64, 1/64, 1/64, 1/64 – Coding with uniform 3-bit code, p=uniform – Expected code length using p: 3 bits – Optimal expected code length, entropy H(q) = 2 bits – KL divergence D(q|p) = 1 bit

10. EM bound on log-likelihood Define Gauss. mixture p(x) as marginal distribution of p(x,z) Posterior distribution on latent cluster assignment Let q(z) be arbitrary distribution over cluster assignment Bound log-likelihood by subtracting KL divergence D(q(z) || p(z|x))

11. Maximizing the EM bound on log-likelihood E-step: fix model parameters, update distributions q n to reset the bound – KL divergence zero if distributions are equal – Thus set q n (z n ) = p(z n |x n ) – After updating the q n the bound equals the true log-likelihood

12. Maximizing the EM bound on log-likelihood M-step: fix the q n, update model parameters Terms for each Gaussian decoupled from rest !

13. Maximizing the EM bound on log-likelihood Derive the optimal values for the mixing weights – Maximize – Take into account that weights sum to one, define – Take derivative for mixing weight j >1

14. Maximizing the EM bound on log-likelihood Derive the optimal values for the MoG parameters – For each Gaussian maximize – Compute gradients and set to zero to find optimal parameters

15. EM bound on log-likelihood L is bound on data log-likelihood for any distribution q Iterative coordinate ascent on F – E-step optimize q, makes bound tight – M-step optimize parameters

16. EM bound on log-likelihood L is bound on data log-likelihood for any distribution q Iterative coordinate ascent on F – E-step optimize q, makes bound tight – M-step optimize parameters

17. Classification Given: training images and their categoriesWhat are the categories of these test images? apple pear tomato cow dog horse

18. Classification Goal is to predict for a test data input the corresponding class label. – Data input x, eg. image but could be anything, format may be vector or other – Class label y, can take one out of at least 2 discrete values, can be more In binary classification we often refer to one class as “positive”, and the other as “negative” Classifier: function f(x) that assigns a class to x, or probabilities over the classes. Training data: pairs (x,y) of inputs x, and corresponding class label y. Learning a classifier: determine function f(x) from some family of functions based on the available training data. Classifier partitions the input space into regions where data is assigned to a given class – Specific form of these boundaries will depend on the family of classifiers used

19. Discriminative vs generative methods Generative probabilistic methods – Model the density of inputs x from each class p(x|y) – Estimate class prior probability p(y) – Use Bayes’ rule to infer distribution over class given input Discriminative (probabilistic) methods – Directly estimate class probability given input: p(y|x) – Some methods do not have probabilistic interpretation, eg. they fit a function f(x), and assign to class 1 if f(x)>0, and to class 2 if f(x)<0

20. Generative classification methods Generative probabilistic methods – Model the density of inputs x from each class p(x|y) – Estimate class prior probability p(y) – Use Bayes’ rule to infer distribution over class given input 1. Selection of model class: – Parametric model: Gaussian (for continuous), Bernoulli (for binary), … – Semi-parametric models: mixtures of Gaussian / Bernoulli / … – Non-parametric models: histograms, nearest-neighbor method, … 2. Estimate parameters of density for each class to obtain p(x|class) – Eg: run EM to learn Gaussian mixture on data of each class 3. Estimate prior probability of each class – If data point is equally likely given each class, then assign to the most probable class. – Prior probability might be different than the number of available examples !

21. Generative classification methods Generative probabilistic methods – Model the density of inputs x from each class p(x|y) – Estimate class prior probability p(y) – Use Bayes’ rule to predict classes given input Given class conditional model, classification is trivial: just apply Bayes’ rule – Compute p(x|class) for each class, – multiply with class prior probability – Normalize to obtain the class probabilities Adding new classes can be done by adding a new class conditional model – Existing class conditional models stay as they are – Just estimate p(x|new class) from training examples of new class – Plug-in the new class model when using Bayes-rule to predict class

22. Generative classification methods Generative probabilistic methods – Model the density of inputs x from each class p(x|y) – Estimate class prior probability p(y) – Use Bayes’ rule to predict classes given input Three-class example in 2d with parametric model – Single Gaussian model per class P(x|class)p(class|x)

23. Generative classification methods Generative probabilistic methods – Model the density of inputs x from each class p(x|y) – Estimate class prior probability p(y) – Use Bayes’ rule to infer distribution over class given input 1. Selection of model class: – Parametric model: Gaussian (for continuous), Bernoulli (for binary), … – Semi-parametric models: mixtures of Gaussian, mixtures of Bernoulli, … – Non-parametric models: histograms, nearest-neighbor method, … 2. Estimate parameters of density for each class to obtain p(x|class) – Eg: run EM to learn Gaussian mixture on data of each class 3. Estimate prior probability of each class – If data point is equally likely given each class, then assign to the most probable class. – Prior probability might be different than the number of available examples !

24. Histogram methods Suppose we – have N data points – use a histogram with C cells How to set the density level in each cell ? – Maximum likelihood estimator. – Proportional to nr of points n in cell – Inversely proportional to volume V of cell Problems with histogram method: – # cells scales exponentially with the dimension of the data – Discontinuous density estimate – How to choose cell size?

25. The ‘curse of dimensionality’ Number of bins increases exponentially with the dimensionality of the data. – Fine division of each dimension: many empty bins – Rough division of each dimension: poor density model The number of parameters may be reduced assuming independence between the dimensions of x: the naïve Bayes model – Eg for histogram model: we estimate a histogram per dimension – Still C D cells, but only D x C parameters to estimate, instead of C D Model is “naïve” since it assumes that all variables are independent… Unrealistic for high dimensional data, where variables tend to be dependent – Typically poor density estimator for p(x|y) – Classification performance may still be good using the derived p(y|x) Also applies to other distributions, eg multivariate Gaussian, instead of full covariance matrix with D 2 parameters, we estimate variance per dimension

26. Example of a naïve Bayes model Hand-written digit classification – Input: binary 28x28 scanned digit images, collect in 784 long vector – Desired output: class label of image Generative model over 28 x 28 pixel images ( 2 784 possible images) – Independent Bernoulli model for each class – Probability per pixel per class – Maximum likelihood estimator is average value per pixel per class Classify using Bayes’ rule:

27. k-nearest-neighbor estimation method Idea: put a cell around the test sample we want to know p(x) for – fix number of samples in the cell, find the right cell size. Probability to find a point in a sphere A centered on x 0 with volume v is Smooth density approximately constant in small region, and thus Alternatively: estimate P from the fraction of training data in A – Total N data points, k in the sphere A Combine the above to obtain estimate – Same formula as used in the histogram method to set the density level in each cell

28. k-nearest-neighbor estimation method Method in practice: – Choose k – For given x, compute the volume v which contain k samples. – Estimate density with Volume of a sphere with radius r in d dimensions is What effect does k have? – Data sampled from mixture of Gaussians plotted in green – Larger k, larger region, smoother estimate Selection of k typically by cross validation

29. k-nearest-neighbor classification rule Use k-nearest neighbor density estimation to find p(x|category) Apply Bayes rule for classification: k-nearest neighbor classification – Find sphere volume v to capture k data points for estimate – Use the same sphere for each class for estimates – Estimate class prior probabilities – Calculate class posterior distribution

30. k-nearest-neighbor classification rule Effect of k on classification boundary – Larger number of neighbors: Larger regions, smoother class boundaries Pros: Very simple – just set k, and choose a distance measure, no learning – Generic: applies to almost anything, as long as you have a distance Cons: Very costly when having large training data set – Need to store all data (memory) – Need to compute distances to all data (time)

31. Summary generative classification methods (Semi-) Parametric models, eg p(data |class) is Gaussian, or mixture of … – Pros: no need to store training data, just the class conditional models – Cons: may fit the data poorly, and might therefore lead to poor classification result Non-parametric models: – Advantage is their flexibility no assumption on shape of data distribution – Histograms: Only practical in low dimensional space (<5 or so), application in high dimensional space will lead to exponentially many cells, most of which will be empty Naïve Bayes modeling in higher dimensional cases – K-nearest neighbor & kernel density estimation: expensive storing all training data (memory space) Computing nearest neighbors or points with non-zero kernel evaluation (computation)

32. References A good and very accessible book that covers all machine learning aspects of the course is – Pattern recognition & machine learning – Chris Bishop, Springer, 2006 Buy it if you are interested in machine learning! For clustering with k-means & mixture of Gaussians read – Section 2.3.9 – Chapter 9, except 9.3.4 – Optionally, Section 1.6 on information theory For non-parameteric classification read – Section 2.5, except 2.5.1