1. Principles of Electronic Communication Systems

2. Chapter 8 Radio Transmitters

3. Topics Covered in Chapter 8 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals 8-2: Carrier Generators 8-3: Power Amplifiers 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits

4. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals A radio transmitter takes the information to be communicated and converts it into an electronic signal compatible with the communication medium. This process involves carrier generation, modulation, and power amplification. The signal is fed by wire, coaxial cable, or waveguide to an antenna that launches it into free space. Typical transmitter circuits include oscillators, amplifiers, frequency multipliers, and impedance matching networks.

5. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal to be transmitted and converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances.

6. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals Every transmitter has four basic requirements: 1. It must generate a carrier signal of the correct frequency at a desired point in the spectrum. 2. It must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the carrier signal. 3. It must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is high enough to carry over the desired distance. 4. It must provide circuits that match the impedance of the power amplifier to that of the antenna for maximum transfer of power.

7. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals Transmitter Configurations The simplest transmitter is a single-transistor oscillator connected to an antenna. This form of transmitter can generate continuous wave (CW) transmissions. The oscillator generates a carrier and can be switched off and on by a telegraph key to produce the dots and dashes of the International Morse code. CW is rarely used today as the oscillator power is too low and the Morse code is nearly extinct.

8. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals Figure 8-1: A more powerful CW transmitter.

9. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals Transmitter Types  High-Level Amplitude Modulated (AM) Transmitter 1. Oscillator generates the carrier frequency. 2. Carrier signal fed to buffer amplifier. 3. Signal then fed to driver amplifier. 4. Signal then fed to final amplifier.

10. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals  Low-Level Frequency Modulated (FM) Transmitter 1. Crystal oscillator generates the carrier signal. 2. Signal fed to buffer amplifier. 3. Applied to phase modulator. 4. Signal fed to frequency multiplier(s). 5. Signal fed to driver amplifier. 6. Signal fed to final amplifier.

11. 8-1: Transmitter Fundamentals  Single-Sideband (SSB) Transmitter 1. Oscillator generates the carrier. 2. Carrier is fed to buffer amplifier. 3. Signal is applied to balanced modulator. 4. DSB signal fed to sideband filter to select upper or lower sideband. 5. SSB signal sent to mixer circuit. 6. Final carrier frequency fed to linear driver and power amplifiers.

12. 8-2: Carrier Generators The starting point for all transmitters is carrier generation. Once generated, the carrier can be modulated, processed in various ways, amplified, and transmitted. The source of most carriers is a crystal oscillator. PLL frequency synthesizers are used in applications requiring multiple channels of operation.

13. 8-2: Carrier Generators Crystal Oscillators The only oscillator capable of maintaining the frequency precision and stability demanded by the FCC is a crystal oscillator. A crystal is a piece of quartz that can be made to vibrate and act like an LC tuned circuit. Overtone crystals and frequency multipliers are two devices that can be used to achieve crystal precision and stability at frequencies greater than 30 MHz.

14. 8-2: Carrier Generators The precision or stability of a crystal is usually expressed in parts per million (ppm). For example to say that a crystal of 1 MHz has a precision of 100 ppm means that the frequency of the crystal can vary from 999900 to 1000100 Hz. Most crystal have tolerance and stability in the 10-1000 ppm range. Expressed as a percentage, the precision is (100/1000000) x 100%=0.01%

15. 8-2: Carrier Generators Crystal Oscillators There are 6 common oscillator circuits available, i.e Pierce, Colpitts, Clapp, Butler, modified Butler and Gate. The Colpitts-type crystal oscillator is the most commonly used crystal oscillator. Feedback is derived from a capacitive voltage divider. Transistor configuration is typically an emitter- follower. The output is taken from the emitter.

16. 8-2: Carrier Generators Figure 8-6: An emitter-follower crystal oscillator

17. 8-2: Carrier Generators Crystal Oscillators The whole process of fine-tuning a crystal is sometimes referred as rubbering. Pulling, or rubbering capacitors are used to make fine adjustments to the crystal oscillator frequency by connecting it in series or in parallel to the crystal. Field-effect transistors (FETs) make good crystal oscillators. The Pierce oscillator is a common configuration that uses a FET.

18. 8-2: Carrier Generators Main problem with crystal is that their upper frequency operation is limited. Higher frequency oscillator required the thinner crystal. At an upper limit of about 50 MHz, the crystal is so fragile that it becomes impractical to use. Overtone crystal used to achieve precision and stability at frequency above 50 MHz. Overtone is like a harmonic as it is usually some multiple of the fundamental vibration frequency. An overtone crystal is cut so that it optimizes its oscillation at an overtone of the basic crystal frequency. The term harmonic is often used as a synonym for overtone.

19. 8-2: Carrier Generators Most overtone are slightly more or slightly less than the integer value. In crystal: The second harmonic is the first overtone. The third harmonic is the second overtone. For example a crystal with a fundamental frequency of 20 MHz would have a second harmonic or first overtone of 40 MHz and third harmonic or second overtone of 60 MHz. Odd overtones are far greater in amplitude than the even overtones.

20. 8-2: Carrier Generators Crystal Switching If a transmitter must operate on more than one frequency, but crystal precision and stability are required, multiple crystals can be used and the desired one switched on. Mechanical rotary switches and diode switches are often used in this kind of application. Diode switching is fast and reliable.

21. 8-2: Carrier Generators Figure 8-9: Using diodes to switch crystals.

22. 8-2: Carrier Generators Frequency Synthesizers Frequency synthesizers are variable-frequency generators that provide the frequency stability of crystal oscillators but the convenience of incremental tuning over a broad frequency range. Frequency synthesizers provide an output that varies in fixed frequency increments over a wide range. In a transmitter, a frequency synthesizer provides basic carrier generation. Frequency synthesizers are used in receivers as local oscillators and perform the receiver tuning function.

23. 8-2: Carrier Generators Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizer The phase-locked loop (PLL) consists of a phase detector, a low-pass filter, and a VCO. The input to the phase detector is a reference oscillator. The reference oscillator is normally crystal-controlled to provide high-frequency stability. The frequency of the reference oscillator sets the increments in which the frequency may be changed.

24. 8-2: Carrier Generators Figure 8-10: Basic PLL frequency synthesizer.

25. 8-2: Carrier Generators Direct Digital Synthesis A direct digital synthesis (DDS) synthesizer generates a sine-wave output digitally. The output frequency can be varied in increments depending upon a binary value supplied to the unit by a counter, a register, or an embedded microcontroller.

26. 8-2: Carrier Generators Direct Digital Synthesis A read-only memory (ROM) is programmed with the binary representation of a sine wave. These are the values that would be generated by an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter if an analog sine wave were digitized and stored in the memory. If these binary values are fed to a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter, the output of the D/A converter will be a stepped approximation of the sine wave. A low-pass filter (LPF) is used to remove the high- frequency content smoothing the sine wave output.

27. 8-2: Carrier Generators Figure 8-15: Basic concept of a DDS frequency source

28. 8-2: Carrier Generators Direct Digital Synthesis DDS synthesizers offer some advantages over PLL synthesizers: The frequency can be controlled in very fine increments. The frequency of a DDS synthesizer can be changed much faster than that of the PLL. However, a DDS synthesizer is limited in its output frequencies.

29. 8-3: Power Amplifiers The three basic types of power amplifiers used in transmitters are: Linear Class C Switching

30. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Amplifiers Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that is an identical, enlarged replica of the input. Their output is directly proportional to their input and they faithfully reproduce an input, but at a higher level. Most audio amplifiers are linear. Linear RF amplifiers are used to increase the power level of variable-amplitude RF signals such as low- level AM or SSB signals.

31. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear amplifiers are class A, AB or B. The class of an amplifier indicates how it is biased. Class A amplifiers are biased so that they conduct continuously. The output is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. Class B amplifiers are biased at cutoff so that no collector current flows with zero input. Only one-half of the sine wave is amplified. Class AB linear amplifiers are biased near cutoff with some continuous current flow. They are used primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provide better linearity than Class B amplifiers, but with less efficiency.

32. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Class A amplifier Linear but not very efficient Poor power amplifiers So they are used primarily as small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-power amplifications. Buffer amplifiers are also class A amplifier.

33. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Class B amplifiers More efficient compared to class A amplifiers, because current flows for only a portion of the input signal. Make good power amplifiers However, it will distort an input signal because they conduct for only one-half cycle. Special technique needed to eliminate or compensate for the distortion i.e. operating class B amplifiers in a push-pull configuration.

34. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Class C amplifiers conduct for less than one- half of the sine wave input cycle, making them very efficient. The resulting highly distorted current pulse is used to ring a tuned circuit to create a continuous sine-wave output. Class C amplifiers cannot be used to amplify varying- amplitude signals. They will clip off or otherwise distort an AM or SSB signal. FM signal can be amplified with more efficient using nonlinear class C amplifiers This type amplifier makes a good frequency multiplier as harmonics are generated in the process.

35. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Switching amplifiers act like on/off or digital switches. They effectively generate a square-wave output. Harmonics generated are filtered out by using high-Q tuned circuits. The on/off switching action is highly efficient because current flows during only one-half of the input cycle, and when it does, the voltage drop across the transistor is very low. Switching amplifiers are designated class D, E, F, and S.

36. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Amplifiers Class A Buffers A class A buffer amplifier is used between the carrier oscillator and the final power amplifier to isolate the oscillator from the power amplifier load, which can change the oscillator frequency. It also provides a modest power increase to provide the driving power required by the final amplifier. Power range miliwatts to rarely more than 1 W.

37. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Figure 8-21: A linear (class A) RF buffer amplifier

38. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Amplifiers Class B Push-Pull Amplifier In a class B push-pull amplifier, the RF driving signal is applied to two transistors through an input transformer. The transformer provides impedance-matching and base drive signals to the two transistors Q1 and Q2 that are 180° out of phase. An output transformer couples the power to the antenna or load.

39. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Figure 8-23: A push-pull class B power amplifier

40. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Class C Amplifiers The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the class C amplifier. These amplifiers are used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and final amplifiers. Class C amplifiers are biased so they conduct for less than 180° of the input. Current flows through a class C amplifier in short pulses, and a resonant tuned circuit is used for complete signal amplification.

41. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Tuned Output Circuits All class C amplifiers have some form of tuned circuit connected in the collector. The primary purpose of a tuned circuit is to form the complete AC sine-wave output. A parallel tuned circuit rings, or oscillates, at its resonant frequency whenever it receives a DC pulse.

42. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Tuned Output Circuits The pulse charges a capacitor, which then discharges into an inductor. The exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called the flywheel effect and produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency.

43. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Figure 8-27: Class C amplifier operation

44. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency multiplication if the tuned circuit in the collector resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency.

45. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Neutralization Self-oscillation exists when some of the output voltage finds its way back to the input of the amplifier with the correct amplitude and phase, and the amplifier oscillates. When an amplifier circuit oscillates at a higher frequency unrelated to the tuned frequency, the oscillation is referred to as parasitic oscillation.

46. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Neutralization Neutralization is a process in which a signal equal in amplitude and 180° out of phase with the signal, is fed back. The result is that the two signals cancel each other out.

47. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Switching Power Amplifiers A switching amplifier is a transistor that is used as a switch and is either conducting or nonconducting. A class D amplifier uses a pair of transistors to produce a square-wave current in a tuned circuit. In a class E amplifier, only a single transistor is used. This amplifier uses a low-pass filter and tuned impedance-matching circuit to achieve a high level of efficiency.

48. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Switching Power Amplifiers A class F amplifier is a variation of the E amplifier. It contains an additional resonant network which results in a steeper square waveform. This waveform produces faster transistor switching and better efficiency. Class S amplifiers are found primarily in audio applications but have also been used in low- and medium- frequency RF amplifiers.

49. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers Newer wireless systems require broader bandwidth than the previously mentioned amplifiers can accommodate. Two common methods of broad-bandwidth amplification are: Feedforward amplification Adaptive predistortion amplification

50. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers Feedforward Amplification With this technique, the distortion produced by the power amplifier is isolated and subtracted from the amplified signal, producing a nearly distortion-free output signal. The system is inefficient because two power amplifiers are required. The tradeoff is wide bandwidth and very low distortion.

51. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Figure 8-34: Feedforward linear power amplifier.

52. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers Adaptive Predistortion Amplification This method uses digital signal processing (DSP) to predistort the signal in a way that when amplified, the amplifier distortion will offset the predistortion characteristics. The result is a a distortion-free output signal. The method is complex, but is more efficient than the feedforward method because only one power amplifier is needed.

53. 8-3: Power Amplifiers Figure 8-35: Concept of adaptive predistortion amplification.

54. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Matching networks that connect one stage to another are very important parts of any transmitter. The circuits used to connect one stage to another are known as impedance-matching networks. Typical networks are LC circuits, transformers, or some combination.

55. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks The main function of a matching network is to provide for an optimum transfer of power through impedance matching techniques. Matching networks also provide filtering and selectivity.

56. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-36: Impedance Matching in RF Circuits

57. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks RF generator normally appears as a signal source with an internal impedance of Z i and the stage being driven represents a load of Z l. ***maximum power transfer in dc circuits take place when Z i and Z l are equals*** In most cases, the 2 impedances involved are considerably different from each other. To overcome this problem, an impedance- matching network is introduced between 2 stages (source and load)

58. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Networks There are three basic types of LC impedance- matching networks. They are: L network T network π network

59. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks L networks consist of an inductor and a capacitor in various L-shaped configurations. They are used as low- and high-pass networks. Low-pass networks are preferred because harmonic frequencies are filtered out. The L-matching network is designed so that the load impedance is matched to the source impedance.

60. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Four L-type impedance-matching network.

61. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-37a: L-type impedance-matching network in which Z L < Z i.

62. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Fig. 8-37(a) causes the load resistance to appear larger than it actually is. Z l appears in series with the inductor of L network Inductor and capacitor are chosen to resonate at the transmitter frequency. At resonance X l equals X c. Complete circuit appears as a parallel resonant circuit. Impedance represented by the circuit is very high at resonant frequency. The actual value of the impedance depends upon the L and C values and the Q of the circuit.

63. L network design equations

64. Example Suppose we wish to match a 6 ohm transistor amplifier impedance to a 50 ohm antenna load at 155 MHz.

65. Solution Solution Assuming that the internal source and load impedances are resistive, and

66. Solution Solution To find the values of L and C at 155 MHz, we rearrange the basic reactance formulas as follows

67. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks T and π Networks To get better control of the Q, or selectivity of a circuit, matching networks using three reactive elements can be used. A π network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the Greek letter π A T network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the letter T.

68. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-40(a): π network.

69. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-40(b): T network.

70. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-40(c): T network.

71. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks The most widely used of these circuits is the T network of Fig.8-40(c). Often called an LCC network. Used to match the low output impedance of a transistor power amplifier to the higher impedance of another amplifier or an antenna.

72. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Design procedure for an LCC T network. Select a desired circuit Q Calculate

73. Example Design the LCC so that a 6 ohm source R i is to be matched to a 50 ohm load R l at 155 MHz. Assume a Q of 10. Inductance is calculated first.

74. Example Next C 1 is calculated:

75. Example Next C 2 is calculated:

76. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Transformers and Baluns One of the best impedance-matching components is the transformer. Iron-core transformers are widely used at lower frequencies to match impedances. Any load impedance can be made to look like the desired load impedance by selecting the correct value of transformer turns ratio. A transformer used to connect a balanced source to an unbalanced load or vice versa, is called a balun (balanced- unbalanced).

77. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Transformers and Baluns Although air-core transformers are used widely at RFs, they are less efficient than iron-core transformers. The most widely used type of core for RF transformers is the toroid. A toroid is a circular, doughnut-shaped core, usually made of a special type of powdered iron. Single-winding tapped coils called autotransformers are also used for impedance matching between RF stages.

78. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Transformers and Baluns Toroid transformers cause the magnetic field produced by the primary to be completely contained within the core itself. This has two important advantages: A toroid does not radiate RF energy. Most of the magnetic field produced by the primary cuts the turns of the secondary winding. Thus, the basic turns ratio, input-output voltage, and impedance formulas for low-frequency transformers apply to high-frequency toroid transformers.

79. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-43: A toroid transformer.

80. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Transmission Line Transformers and Baluns A transmission line or broadband transformer is a unique type of transformer widely used in power amplifiers for coupling between stages and impedance matching. It is usually constructed by winding two parallel wires (or a twisted pair) on a toroid.

81. 8-4: Impedance-Matching Networks Figure 8-46: A transmission line transformer.

82. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Many transmitters used in recent equipment designs are a combination of ICs and discrete component circuits. Two examples are: Low-Power FM Transmitter Short-Range Wireless Transmitter

83. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Low-Power FM Transmitter A typical circuit might be made up of: A transmitter chip Power amplifier IC voltage regulator Voltage source.

84. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Low-Power FM Transmitter The heart of the circuit is the transmitter chip. It contains a microphone amplifier with clipping diodes; an RF oscillator, which is usually crystal- controlled with an external crystal; and a buffer amplifier. Frequency modulation is produced by a variable reactance circuit connected to the oscillator. It also contains two free transistors that can be connected with external components as buffer amplifiers or as multipliers and low-level power amplifiers. This chip is useful up to about 60 to 70 MHz, and is widely used in cordless telephones.

85. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Figure 8-51: Freescale MC 2833 IC FM VHF transmitter chip.

86. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Figure 8-50: Schematic of sections of the E-Comm transceiver.

87. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Short-Range Wireless Transmitter There are many short-range wireless applications that require a transmitter to send data or control signals to a nearby receiver. Examples include: Remote keyless entry (RKE) devices used to open car doors Tire pressure sensors Remote-control lights and ceiling fans Garage door openers

88. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Short-Range Wireless Transmitter Such transmitters are unlicensed, use very low power, and operate in the FCC’s industrial-scientific- medical (ISM) bands. A typical transmitter circuit might be composed of: PLL used as a frequency multiplier Output power amplifier

89. 8-5: Typical Transmitter Circuits Figure 8-52: The Freescale MC 33493D UHF ISM transmitter IC.