1. Evolutionary theories of development Darwin Durkheim Tonnies Parsons

2. Introduction Evolutionary theories of social change start with the assumption that human societies, as they modernize, move from a relatively simple structure towards increased complexity. Industrial societies are therefore more complex than any preceding types.

3. Darwin As with many early Functionalist approaches the work of Charles Darwin was very important. Just as Darwin argued it was necessary that species evolve and develop over time, increasing their complexity, so too societies must evolve in order to survive. These biological parallels can be seen in much of the proceeding sociological work of Functionalists particularly Durkheim and Parsons.

4. Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkhiem was concerned about how orderly societies were, in particular, he was concerned that the individualism of the modern world would make social order difficult to maintain. Furthermore in his attempts to introduce a ‘scientific’ approach to the study of society he argued that people do not, in fact, chose what they do, rather, Social Facts (the family, social class, religion) constrain what we do, even if we do not recognise their existence!

5. Model proposes an increasing differentiation of social structure as societies move from being based on mechanical to organic solidarity. Mechanical Solidarity Found in premodern societies Division of labour is simple, with little specialisation in what people do (no teachers, footballers, musicians) people primarily engaged in production and subsistence Basis of social order – combination of: Simple religious belief system Repressive laws Powerful community rituals Division of Labour in Society (1893/1947)

6. Division of Labour in Society (1893/1947) Organic Solidarity Found in modern societies Division of labour is complex, with increasing specialisation in what people do (Brain Surgeons, IT consultants, Rocket Engineers etc) This leads to a complex set of relationships between all members of society who rely on others – making us Interdependent. Lack of common belief system leads to a less secure social order – people far more likely to experience Anomie, a lack of social or moral standards, due to lack of clear guidelines. Result = Modern world likley to be disorderly & unstable

7. Tonnies (1957) GemeinschaftGesellschaft Meaning of term CommunityAssociation Nature of Social Interaction Face-to-face contact. Individuals know each other personally and in many different social roles. Social interaction involves depth and is on many levels. The individual has many fleeting, superficial interactions. People relate to each other in an impersonal way, often on a professional or business level. People deal with each other in specific roles and for practical purposes. Place of the Individual The individual is locked into a web of family and friendships. The individual is largely isolated from others. Forms of Social Control Informal: gossip, ridicule, peer and family pressures. Formal: public legislation, public opinion. Status Ascribed: status is determined by birth. If you’re born a peasant, you’ll stay a peasant in the eyes of others! Achieved: status is determined by hard work and individual talents. You are judged by ‘what you are’, not by your family background.

8. Parsons (1951) Claimed that societies evolve from the simple to the more complex: Aboriginal SocietyArchaicHistoricModern (Australia)(Ancient Egypt)(China, India)(USA, Japan) This can be analysed as a process of progressive differentiation of social institutions. As societies evolve, their economic & political systems become separated from one another as well as from family, legal, cultural and other systems. These subsystems are however interrelated and together form a complex whole. According to Parsons, industrial societies are at the highest stage of evolution.

9. Modernisation and development theories Webster Rostow Kerr Harris

10. Webster (1984) The evolutionary model of social change is the basis of what has been referred to as ‘modernisation’ theories of development. According to Webster development depends on ‘traditional’ values being displaced by modern ones. Argues that in a ‘traditional’ or pre-industrial society, three crucial features are apparent: 1.The value of traditionalism itself is dominant. That is, people are orientated to the past and they lack the cultural ability to adjust to new circumstances. 2.The kinship system is the decisive reference point for all social practices, being the primary means through which economic, political and legal relationships are controlled. One’s position in the kinship system and, hence in the society, is ascribed, not achieved. That is, it is a reflection of the status or standing of the family, clan or tribe into which one is born; one’s position only changes as one moves up the family hierarchy 3.Members of the traditional society have an emotional, superstitious and fatalistic approach to the world: ‘what will be, will be’, ‘things have always been this way’.

11. Webster (1984) In comparison, ‘modern’ society has contrasting characteristics: 1.People may still have traditions but they are not slaves to them and will challenge any that seem unnecessary or get in the way of continued cultural progress. They are not dominated by ‘traditionalism’. 2.Kinship has a very much less important role in all areas of society (even within the family) because of the need for geographical and social mobility which weakens family ties. Moreover, one’s position in the economy, polity, etc., is earned through hard work, high achievement and motivation and not determined by kinship. 3.Members of the modern society are not ‘fatalistic’ but forward- looking and innovative, ready to overcome the obstacles they find in their way, particularly in business affairs, reflecting a strong entrepreneurial spirit and rational, scientific approach to the world.

12. Rostow (1960) Whilst the theories previously mentioned focus heavily on changing values & culture, Walt Rostow’s model emphasises economic factors and more specifically, the role of technology in the process of development. Rostow’s model identifies five stages of economic development: 1.Traditional Society 2.Preconditions for take-off 3.Take-off 4.Drive to maturity 5.Age of high mass consumption

13. Rostow’s theory of economic growth Traditional Society Preconditions for take-off Take-off Drive to maturity Age of high mass consumption Increasing ‘development’ ‘Take-off’ requires emergence of a political elite as well as the availability of capital & technology Emergence of science & technology central to the stage of ‘take-off’ ‘Drive to maturity’ characterised by a high percentage of national income being reinvested – leading to creation of sound economic infrastructure, and a shift towards consumer goods & services Higher personal income & greater leisure time stimulate mass consumption

14. Kerr (1962) Convergence Theory Kerr argued that all societies which reached the stage of Industrialisation would, whatever their political systems, ultimately converge towards a single type. Industrialism, he argued, represents a specific kind of social system whose ‘needs’ must eventually be met, in any society, by similar ‘solutions’ in terms of social structure. Commitment to science & technology of industrial production = need for educated, mobile and diverse labour force. Consequence: Universal systems of education Selection for advanced training in specialist skills Managerial hierarchies Complex division of labour Kerr was writing at the time of ‘conflict’, politically and ideologically, between the contrasting global superpowers of the USA & USSR. His ideas were essentially predictions. With hindsight we can evaluate the extent to which Kerr was ‘proved’ correct given the “End of History”.

15. Criticisms of Modernisation Theories Entirely ignores the impact of colonialism & imperialism on Third World Countries. Fails to acknowledge that economic growth is as much about the power to control resources as it is about the desire or ambition to do so. Ethnocentrism – ‘West is Best’. Assumes that ‘Western’ values are needed by Third World countries, attaching little value on their own cultures and traditions – Cultural Imperialism. Move from ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’ values overstated. Family ties, spiritual values & community spirit not as extinct as theories would suggest.

16. Marxists & Modernisation Theory Many Marxist have criticised modernisation theory. Traditional Marxist theory emphasises revolution whilst modernisation theory stresses evolution. However Harris (1987) did produce an analysis that has some consistency with modernisation theory. Harris points to the abrupt change imposed upon Third world countries by outside bodies/agencies. However Harris regards the development of capitalism in the Third World in an optimistic and positive way, representing progress towards an eventual socialist society. Harris also argued that a single, interdependent, interacting global manufacturing system has emerged, in which the nation-state is becoming increasingly irrelevant. Trans-national corporations attempt, in an increasingly aggressive manner, to identify & exploit the cheapest locations for productive activities. This in turn leads to growing interaction of nation-states, a unifying factor, and a decline in the significance of nationalism. Therefore Harris sees the globalisation of manufacturing & trade, along with the growing independence of nations, as a hopeful sign for the Third World.