1. Colonialism The years between WWI and WWII see the formalisation of the institute of the mandate for the Middle East and of full-scale colonisation for French North Africa: –Two exceptions to the trend are Yemen and Saudi Arabia. They are not colonised nor under mandate, but.. American and British presence can be equated to colonialism (F. Burgat).

2. From equality to independence In the inter-war years, North African political actors focus their attention on demanding equality within the French political system. –The colonial power is asked to live up to its own values. In the Middle East however, demands for ‘real’ independence through pan-Arabism begin to be voiced.

3. The impact of WWII The war in Europe radically changes the power relations between colonial Western powers and the colonies: –The pro-independence movements in the Middle East grow stronger. The United States and the Soviet Union see with favour the emancipation of the Middle East. –The failure of the French state to grant equal rights to Muslims fuels demands of independence in North Africa (Indigenes). Algeria is the main terrain of this confrontation.

4. Independence Most countries achieve independence in the 1950s, Algeria in 1962. Small Gulf States will have to wait until the late 1960s. –The international system is characterised by the Cold War, which has a tremendous impact on the new ruling elites and the choices they make. –The area is a very important geo-strategic asset for the superpowers. The attempt to influence the new states is blatant. –Neutrality in the Cold War is very difficult to maintain and two ‘sides’ emerge in the region.

5. Radical socialist republics The majority of independent countries quickly move towards state-led development and a republican system: –Rulers put in place by the colonial powers upon leaving are overthrown (Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Iraq) –Only the state can mobilise national wealth and people in a spirit of unity and this is usually done under the guidance of the military. –Anti-imperialist sentiment and behaviour are displayed in the international arena because of the colonial experience.

6. Pro-Western Conservatism Monarchies transfer better to independence and remain solidly pro-Western. –Anti-imperialism is popular at mass level, but not at elite level. –Social conservatism rather than socialist modernisation. –State-led development, but creation of a class of private merchants and entrepreneurs.

7. One common feature: authoritarianism Quite quickly the new elites in power hijack the state and its institutions: –The military in the socialist republics favours stability. Democratic politics does not take hold because it is perceived as divisive. –Personal dictatorships in order to produce stability. It is possible where rulers enjoy personal legitimacy. –Dynastic rule to produce stability. –No dissent tolerated because harmful to nation- building.

8. Islam and the state The state is not exclusive to any one political ideology –It is not a liberal-democratic debate only Islam does not say what the structure of the state should be –The Medina constitution as the starting point. Modern state-building has to contend with ‘religious’ demands –What is the place of religion in society.