Version 1.0, November 2015 BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and.

Version 1.0, November 2015 BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and co-funded by the European Union.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INTRODUCTION Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Get to know the fact that no nuclear power plant is 100% safe. 2.Understand the need for the emergency preparedness process to support an effective emergency response. 3.Get to know basic terminology such as nuclear emergency, on-site and off-site areas. 4.Distinguish on-site and off-site emergency preparedness and response. 5.Get to know how this module is organised. 2

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Electricity is essential today Different types of power plants Nuclear power plants generate 11% of electricity All power plants have benefits and drawbacks Nuclear accident is the biggest drawback of NPPs − New designs are safer − But nothing is 100 % safe 3  We still need to be prepared, to the extent practicable, to respond to nuclear emergencies!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Lessons learned There were a number of nuclear emergencies They provide excellent source of lessons We will take a closer look at most prominent and well known 4

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency preparedness Emergency response to severe accidents rarely happens, because emergencies of such scale rarely happen! Response is not everyday work for most response organizations Therefore the preparedness process is essential: − To have training − To have exercises to simulate emergency situations − To improve plans and procedures 5  Emergency preparedness and response hand in hand!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response When one is prepared enough? Preparing for emergencies should be adequate to enable effective response It is difficult to draw a line where one is prepared enough In practice it also depends on available resources Nuclear emergency preparedness and response is not proportional to country size! 6

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Scope of the Module and terms used EPR = Emergency Preparedness and Response Emphasis given to an emergency at NPP − Nuclear emergency = Emergency in which the hazard is due to nuclear chain reaction or from decay of its products This module is based on current good practices and international safety standards − IAEA safety standards in EPR 7

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response On-site & Off-site On-site = Area within the security perimeter, fence or other designated property marker under control of the facility Off-site = Area beyond that under control of the facility 8  Our topic is EPR of local, regional and national response organizations and the operating organization  Aspects of coping with the accidents within NPP is also covered in Module 15

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Road book for this Module Basic Concepts - Facts and phenomena for better understanding Past nuclear accidents - Practical reasoning for EPR Establishing EPR - Setting up EPR Functional & Infrastructural elements – All the functions to be performed in emergency response and infrastructure necessary to support them Role of the IAEA in EPR Overview of the IAEA publications − Safety standards − Technical guidance and − Other technical tools 9

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response BASIC CONCEPTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.List specific characteristics of nuclear emergency. 2.List goals of emergency response. 3.Explain goals of emergency preparedness. 4.List the radiation exposure pathways. 5.Explain the different radiation exposure pathways. 6.Explain the term “Source Term”. 7.Understand differences between controlled and uncontrolled release. 8.Get to know background of dose calculations. 9.Understand limitations of dose calculations. 10.Get to know radiation exposure in relation to protective actions. 10

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response BASIC CONCEPTS – What‘s next? Emergency response Goals of emergency response Goals of emergency preparedness Doses and protective actions Exposure pathways Source term Dose calculations and field monitoring 11

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Natural disasters Brought about by change in natural phenomena Earthquakes, flooding … Man has no influence on 12

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Manmade disasters Result of − System failure − Human or organizational failure − Intentional acts Nuclear accident at NPP − Can be triggered by a natural disaster as well 13

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Particularities of nuclear accidents Danger is coming − From highly complex manmade machine − In a form of ionizing radiation − Less known to population and general rescue services − Induces fear and other psychological effects Consequences to population and environment − Can be prevented if accident is contained within the NPP safety barriers − Can be devastating to population, environment and nation’s economy Nuclear accident is quite different from natural disasters 14  Even though probability is very low, we need to prepare thoroughly for nuclear accidents and maintain adequate capability

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Challenge of competence Understanding of ionizing radiation and nuclear technology is primarily limited to: − Operator of nuclear power plant and its competent employees − Government authority responsible for nuclear and radiation safety Government authority responsible for dealing with all types of emergencies may not necessarily have competence in nuclear and radiation safety − However, it provides rescue and relief services in nuclear emergency as well 15  Thus, good cooperation and coordinating mechanism are essential for successful EPR

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Response goals Primary emergency response goals Take control of situation and mitigate the consequences Prevent severe deterministic effects Reasonably reduce the risk of stochastic effects 16

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Additional response goals Rendering first aid Providing critical medical treatment Managing treatment of radiation injuries Keeping public informed Maintaining public trust Mitigating non-radiological consequences Protecting property and the environment Preparing for the resumption of normal social and economic activity 17

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness goals Emergency preparedness makes sure that Adequate response capability exists and is Always ready - to mitigate consequences! 18

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness in a nut shell Documents − Legal framework − National nuclear emergency plan − To set roles and responsibilities for all parties involved in preparedness process and response − Under effective management system People − Sufficient number of people: qualified, trained, fit for duty − To run the preparedness process − To take positions in emergency response 19

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparedness in a nut shell /cont. Communication & Equipment − Reliable, secure and redundant communication systems − Equipment to support response Training, testing, exercising − Process needs to be set up to regularly − Train people for their positions, applying SAT − Test all communication and other equipment to assure operability − Exercise response 20  Everything must be set on all levels for all involved organizations - from national down to local and the operator

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Doses For evaluating radiological consequences on human health Can be calculated or measured To be associated with health effects, one need to know: − How the doses are measured and calculated, i.e. what type of dose it is − The exact exposure pathway − Who is exposed − Radionuclides involved 21

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Deterministic and stochastic effects Deterministic effects − Early or acute health effects − Relative biological effectiveness (RBE) weighted absorbed dose to an organ or tissue − Unit is the gray (Gy) Stochastic effects − Late health effects − Equivalent dose to an organ or tissue − Unit is the sievert (Sv) Stochastic effects in exposed population − Effective dose − Unit is the sievert (Sv) 22

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Why another quantity for deterministic effects? The effective dose concept is not applicable to high doses The rate at which the dose is received is also important − Over short or long period of time (acute or chronic exposure) 23

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions When doses are to exceed those at which radiation induced health effects can be expected, protective actions are almost always justified to be taken, such as: − Iodine thyroid blocking − Evacuation − Sheltering − Restrictions on contaminated food, milk, drinking water and other commodities − Relocation 24

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions /cont. State may decide to take protective actions at doses below those at which radiation-induced health effects may be expected only after: − thorough justification that ensures these actions will do more good than harm − optimization Any protective action need to be discontinued when no longer justified 25

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Other response actions Other response actions include those for providing support to the affected population and for public reassurance, such as: − Provision of public information − Medical examination − Psychological counselling − Mitigating economic impact 26

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Exposure pathways – What‘s next? What are exposure pathways Types of releases Composition of airborne release Ground contamination The pathways Their relevance Factors of actual doses 27 inadvertent ingestion

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response What are exposure pathways?  How radiation can expose individuals 28 inadvertent ingestion

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Types of releases Nuclear emergency can produce two types of releases: − Airborne goes into the atmosphere, forming a plume − Liquid is discharged into water bodies (ground water, rivers, lakes and the sea) 29

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Airborne release Usually main concern as it may result to exposures of population with serious health consequences Radionuclides released to environment as − Gases − Aerosol particles − Water soluble substances − Slightly soluble oxides 30

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Ground contamination Deposition can be increased by precipitation (rain) − Washes down radionuclides − Hot spots along the rainwater path Hot spots = areas with higher radiation or contamination levels 31

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Deposition at a considerable distance The plume will travel downwind and the concentration of radioactive materials will tend to decrease as it travels further from the facility. As the concentration of radioactive materials in the plume decreases, the dose rate to the affected population will also decrease. Thus, those who are further away from the plant will generally be at less risk, i.e. stochastic effects not warranting immediate evacuation but relocation or restrictions on food consumption. But deposition from severe releases may occur at a considerable distance 32

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Exposure pathways The plume and deposition are primary sources of dose via: 1. Inhalation 2. Cloud shine 3. Ground shine 4. Ingestion 5. Inadvertent ingestion 6. Skin contamination 33 inadvertent ingestion

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Exposure pathways /cont. The plume and deposition are primary sources of dose via: 1. Inhalation – internal beta and gamma exposure from inhaling radioactive material in the air (plume, resuspension) 2. Cloud shine – external gamma radiation from the air (plume), 3. Ground shine – external gamma radiation from deposition, 4. Ingestion – internal exposure from eating and drinking of contaminated food, milk and water 5. Inadvertent ingestion – internal exposure from eating with dirty hands or smoking or playing 6. Skin contamination – external beta and gamma radiation from deposition on the skin and clothes. 34

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Relevance of the pathways During release, the following pathways are predominant: Inhalation Cloud shine Ground shine Skin contamination and After plume has passed, the following pathways are predominant: Ground shine Intake of contaminated food, milk, water and Inadvertent ingestion 35

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Actual doses received Actual doses received depend on Release itself (source term) − Composition and − Released activities Weather (wind, rain etc.) − During release − After the release Protective actions taken 36

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Source term – What‘s next? Source term definition Big uncertainty Modes of containment release 37

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Source term Source term = ? The composition of release itself Defined by characteristics of radioactive material released − Quantity or magnitude − Timing − Chemical species and − Physical forms Source term is always subject to uncertainty 38

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Big uncertainty Early - before or during initial release − Very little is known with certainty The operators should know − If there is core damage − But not the size or timing of a release Behaviour of released material − Very complex and − Unpredictable 39  Only information early on that can be used confidently is the core status!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Modes of containment release Regular radiation monitors can be of little or no use if Release is fast, direct and unfiltered or Via unmonitored pathway 40 Controlled release Uncontrolled release

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dose calculations and field monitoring – What‘s next? What are dose calculations Real time dose projections Protective actions based on dose calculations? Dose projections and field monitoring 41

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dose calculations Potential dose can be calculated by dose models and software − e.g. InterRAS, RODOS This is projected dose Used for − Planning purposes − Easier decision making later in an emergency response 42

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Real time dose projections To make them during an emergency, it would require Assessing current and projected core status Predicting occurrence, type and timing of release Predicting source term with − Radionuclide release fractions − Energy of the release and − Duration Predicting − Atmospheric dispersion − Ground contamination and − Resulting exposure pathways for individuals off-site Can all of these be known early in the emergency? 43

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions should not be based on dose calculations Protective actions must be initiated BEFORE a major release  Protective action decisions to be based on core damage Because of: − High probability of a major release given core damage − Relative ease to detect major core damage − Large uncertainties associated with projecting containment failure − Great difficulties to make accurate dose calculations 44

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dose Projection and field monitoring After urgent protective actions are implemented − To assess areas warranting early protective and other response actions Model projections − Helpful to direct monitoring efforts − But actions not to be limited to model projections! Actual field monitoring results − Can differ considerably from calculations − Calculations show averages, and they may not necessarily show the hot spots 45

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dose Projection and field monitoring /cont. Early field monitoring results should be used with great care 137 Cs measured after the Chernobyl accident − People relocated from hot spots more than 300 km away 46

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response PAST NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Understand the reasoning for nuclear emergency preparedness and response through brief overview of the most well known past nuclear accidents. 47

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response To remind us all! Even today we can never be 100% sure that nothing would happen Past accidents provide lessons identified and hopefully learned Major nuclear accidents: − Three Mile Island (1979) − Chernobyl (1986) − Fukushima Daiichi (2011) 48

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three Mile Island accident (TMI) 28 March, 1979, USA Partial core meltdown Radioactive impact not significant But immense non-radiological impact Rated INES 5 49

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response What went wrong at TMI? Communication! The operator did not understand the situation But messages were too reassuring When it got worse: “It is worse than we thought” Trust was lost with the public and authorities Trust is always difficult to regain 50

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Chernobyl accident 26 April, 1986, USSR Ukraine today Significant amounts of radioactive material released High into the atmosphere, and far away Significant increase in thyroid cancer among children more than 350 km from the site Contamination levels exceeded in agricultural products more than 1000 km away Rated INES 7 51

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Lack of emergency preparedness Very little was prepared in advance It took two days to order evacuation No stable iodine pills were prepared 52

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Nuclear world was never the same New power plants builds stopped National radiation monitoring network were started Two conventions were adopted − Convention on early notification − Convention on international assistance 53

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Fukushima Daiichi accident 11 March, 2011, Japan As a consequence of extreme natural disaster, strong earthquake followed by tsunami Multiple core meltdowns Multiple releases over a couple of weeks to the atmosphere and for months to the ocean Evacuation of 20 km and 30 km zone Rated INES 7 54  It confirmed we always need to be prepared for the worst!

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ESTABLISHING RESPONSE CAPABILITY Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe the planning basis for establishing response capability. 2.Explain the importance of hazard assessment. 3.Get to know the concept of protection strategy. 4.Distinguish between reference levels and generic criteria. 5.Understand the concept of EALs and OILs. 6.Describe the IAEA emergency planning zones and distances. 55

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ESTABLISHING RESPONSE CAPABILITY /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 7.Understand the need for introducing emergency planning zones and distances. 8.Get to know concept of operation during a general emergency at NPP. 9.Describe the three levels of responsibilities in emergency response. 10.Describe developing emergency plans and procedures. 56

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ESTABLISHING RESPONSE CAPABILITY – What‘s next? Assessment of hazards Protection strategies Concept of operations Allocation of responsibilities Developing emergency plans and response capability 57

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Assessment of hazards Establishing emergency response capability to be based on potential hazards and associated consequences − Probabilistic safety analysis (PSA) provides essential information for the types of accident sequences and their probability − Safety analysis report (SAR), the facility licensing document, contains description of the site, as well as detailed description of design basis accidents and design extension conditions − Hazard assessment, a comprehensive assessment for emergency preparedness and response purposes − Where and for whom protective actions may be required − Identifies actions that are most effective in mitigating the consequences and protecting individuals including the timing of actions required − Allows for applying a graded approach − PSA and SAR provide relevant inputs 58

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Off-site emergency zones and distances The hazard assessment of NPPs results in off-site emergency zones and distances where: − Appropriate arrangements are established in advance to ensure effective and prompt response 59 The IAEA nomenclature − Precautionary action zone (PAZ) − Urgent protective action planning zone (UPZ) − Extended planning distance (EPD) − Ingestion and commodities planning distance (ICPD)

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Precautionary action zone (PAZ, 3-5 km) PAZ is a designated area around a NPP in which urgent protective actions are pre-planned to be taken before a release of radioactive material. The goal is to start implementing protective actions, such as evacuation and iodine thyroid blocking, upon declaration of a general emergency on the basis of plant conditions in order to avoid or to minimize severe deterministic effects. 60

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Urgent protective action planning zone (UPZ, 15-30 km) UPZ is a designated area around a NPP in which urgent protective actions are pre-planned to be taken before or shortly after a release of radioactive material in a way that they would not delay the implementation of urgent protective actions within PAZ. The goal is to implement protective actions and other response actions, such as evacuation, sheltering and iodine thyroid blocking, effectively upon declaration of a general emergency in order to reduce the risk of stochastic effects 61

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Extended planning distance (EPD, 50/100 km) EPD is the area beyond the UPZ in which arrangements are made to carry out monitoring and assessment of radiological situation following a significant release of radioactive material. The goal is to locate areas within a day to a week and a month following the release where protective actions and other response actions, such as relocation, need to be taken to reduce the risk of stochastic effects. 62

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Ingestion and commodities planning distance (ICPD, 100/300 km) ICPD is the area beyond EPD in which arrangements are made to take effective response actions in relation to distribution, sale and consumption of food, milk and drinking water and use of commodities other than food that may be contaminated following a significant release of radioactive material in order to reduce the risk of stochastic effects and to mitigate the non-radiological consequences (e.g. economic impact). 63

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Off-site emergency zones and distances /cont. Roughly circular areas Defined by local landmarks Do not stop at national borders Emergency will not stop at the planning zone boundary! Special attention for personnel of special facilities in PAZ and UPZ 64

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Sizes for emergency zones and distances 65 Emergency zones and distances Suggested maximum radius (km) 100 to 1000 MW(th) ≥ 1000 MW(th) Precautionary action zone (PAZ) 3 to 5 Urgent protective action planning zone (UPZ) 15 to 30 Extended planning distance (EPD) 50100 Ingestion and commodities planning distance (ICPD) 100300

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protection strategies General approach to achieving goals of emergency response: − To guide development of emergency arrangements − To guide emergency response operations Justified and optimized set of protective actions Developed on the basis of hazard assessment Justification and optimization not limited to radiation protection consideration alone − To take into account social, economic, environmental and psychological factors − To take into account the impact of each protective action on the economy, society, public welfare etc. 66

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protection strategies during an emergency Implemented through the emergency arrangements Adjusted to meet the prevailing conditions 67

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dosimetric concepts Protection strategies are developed considering two dosimetric concepts: − Using the reference level in terms of residual dose − Using generic criteria in terms of projected dose and dose that has been received. 68

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Reference level Represents the level − Above which it is inappropriate to plan to allow exposures to occur and − Below which optimization takes place It is expressed in terms of residual dose − Dose expected to be incurred by an individual in the emergency after protective actions have been fully implemented or in absence of protective actions if decided so (e.g. no any actions taken and protective actions being terminated) Set typically for an effective dose in the range 20–100 mSv acute or annual effective dose from all exposure pathways The actual national value(s) within this band need to be chosen on the basis of prevailing conditions of the emergency situation and on national particularities. 69

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Generic criteria To be used for implementing protective actions either individually or in combination − Used in the process of developing the protection strategy and during its implementation Expressed in terms of − Projected dose, or − Received dose Given for − RBE weighted absorbed dose in an organ or tissue − Equivalent dose in an organ and tissue − Effective dose 70

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Operational criteria An example of generic criterion − When projected dose exceeds 100 mSv in the first 7 days, urgent protective action, e.g. evacuation, is warranted It is impossible to use this criterion (100 mSv in the first seven days) directly to initiate protective actions because: − Projected dose cannot be measured − Nearly impossible to calculate it accurately and timely to allow for effective response Therefore there is a need for criteria based on the generic criteria that can be used directly during an emergency without any need for a further assessment 71  Operational criteria

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response System of Generic and Operational criteria EALs, OILs and observables at the scene make a system of operational criteria for use within the protection strategy, satisfying the generic criteria and ultimately the reference level 72

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency Action Levels (EALs) EALs are predetermined, site specific observable criteria Can be observed by control room staff − Instrument readings, status indications, observable events, etc. To early detect initiating condition of an emergency To trigger protective actions when results from field monitoring may not yet be an appropriate indicator for doing so EALs form the basis of emergency classification system (discussed later) 73

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Operational Intervention Levels (OILs) After the release monitoring teams can be deployed to take measurements and samples OILs are used to determine where protective actions are necessary OILs are measured with instruments in the field or in the laboratory: − They are associated with dose rates, ground or surface contamination, radionuclides in environmental, food or water samples etc. OILs are derived from generic criteria. They are calculated and agreed upon in the preparedness as part of the protection strategy. OILs can be revised during emergency to meet the prevailing conditions 74

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response An example of use of OILs An operational intervention level for the dose rate of 1000 µSv/h at 1 m above ground will indicate that a dose projected to 100 mSv in 7 days may be exceeded Therefore, should the measured dose rates indicate that this value is exceeded, evacuation in combination with iodine thyroid blocking may be an appropriate protection strategy to be implemented When a decision maker gets a report from the field indicating such dose rates, there would be no need for further assessments and decision for implementing the agreed protection strategy can be made in a timely manner 75

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations T=0 − Emergency at NPP starts with event indicative of a release or uncontrolled criticality warranting an emergency response T=15 min − Operator declares General Emergency on the basis EALs T=30 min − Operator notifies the off-site authorities and thus triggers a coordinated and pre-planned off-site response − Operator takes actions on-site to prevent or mitigate the release − Operator performs actions to protect individuals present at the site − Support is provided from off-site, upon request 76

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations /cont. T=45 min − Off-site authorities order implementation of predetermined urgent protective actions − Warn population in PAZ and UPZ and inform them on actions to take − To take stable iodine pills − People within the PAZ to immediately evacuate to beyond the UPZ and the UPZ to shelter until evacuation − Instruct population within EPD to reduce inadvertent ingestion, if release is on-going or imminent − Instruct transportation (air, land, sea) to avoid PAZ and UPZ − Instruct ICPD to protect food chain and stop use of potentially contaminated foods and commodities: − Place animals on protected feed, − Protect food and drinking water sources, − Stop distribution and consumption of local produce and wild-grown products, − Stop distribution of potentially contaminated commodities until they have been assessed. 77

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations /cont. T=1 h − Public promptly take the action recommended Within hours − Authorities issue press release to general public, joint press conference − National authorities notify the IAEA and may request for international assistance if needed − Full emergency response is activated, operating under single emergency command system 78

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations /cont. As soon as possible Following a release, areas not evacuated are to be monitored to identify where additional actions are needed: − Evacuation within a day − Relocation within a week to a month − Restrictions on consumption of local produce, milk from grazing animals, rainwater and animal feed Contaminated, exposed or evacuated warranting medical attention are taken to pre-designated hospitals and receive medical care − Physicians get advice from doctors with experience in dealing with severe overexposures − National authorities assist in obtaining specialized treatment through the IAEA if necessary 79

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Concept of operations /cont. Within hours − Triage centres are established outside the evacuated area to register, monitor and screen evacuees Within a day − Controls are implemented to monitor and approve potentially contaminated goods coming from the affected areas and intended for international trade Within a week − Food, milk and drinking water and commodities sampling and analysis program is implemented to clarify if further restrictions are needed or to remove restrictions − Personal data of people in population with exposures sufficient to result in detectable excess cancer incidence is placed in a registry 80

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Allocation of responsibilities One of the most important parts of emergency preparedness To assign roles and responsibilities − For each action there is responsible organization Should be assigned − Officially, in legislation and − Documented in plans Organizations have to embrace their roles − Internal rules and procedures − Employees or members be aware of them and be trained − Designated coordinators 81

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three levels of responsibilities 82 OPERATOR (facility staff) OFF-SITE (local and national authorities) INTERNATIONAL (IAEA) mitigate the emergency protect people on- site notify and keep off-site authorities informed, including international community provide initial radiological monitoring, etc. implement protective actions off-site provide support to the facility public communication provide medical treatment notify IAEA, etc. Notify and exchange official information among international community, Provide advice and assistance, if requested, Perform assessment of the situation and prognosis of its development, Provide information to general public and media, and Coordinate the inter- agency response.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Off-site authorities Local authorities − Local municipality − The mayor − Local civil protection − First responders (fire fighters, police and paramedics) … National authorities − Government − Ministries − Governmental agencies − Regional authorities (province or state) 83

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Developing emergency plans and response capability 84 Emergency response planning Done on paper Implementation Plans National Regional Local Operator Hardware installations Communication setups Training Exercises Etc. Procedures Checklists …

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response National radiation emergency plan (NREP) Overall umbrella plan − For all responding organizations and their relationships Should provide sufficient detail to ensure effective response Usually a part of “all hazards” plan − Otherwise must address integration under ‘all-hazards’ approach 85

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Hierarchy of radiation emergency plans (example) 86

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response How to develop NREP? There can be different approaches to develop NREP depending on the national circumstances, e.g. − High level working group can be established to draft NREP − Different topics can be covered in separate working group sessions with additional experts invited Similarly, local and other subordinate plans and documents can be developed For effective implementation of the plans it is useful to list the missing resources at the time of drafting and produce action plans for hardware installations, communication setups, personnel trainings, etc. IAEA proposes modular methodology, explained in the EPR-Method publication for developing overall EPR − To divide the project into self-contained tasks 87

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Maintaining the plans Once emergency plans and response capability are established it is crucial to maintain them by the preparedness process with regular − Periodic review, − Testing, − Training, and − Exercises This process identifies problems, gaps and possible improvements in order to maintain overall response capability as good as it can be. Of course, these improvements need to be thereafter reflected in the plans and other documents. 88

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency plans, procedures etc. Should provide for all functions necessary to be performed in the emergency response, such as − Initial accident assessment and classification − Notification and activation − Accident mitigation − Public protective actions and other response actions − Protection of emergency workers − Public communication − Non-radiological consequences mitigation − Recovery  All emergency functions are covered in the next chapter 89

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe emergency management. 2.Explain the need for emergency classification. 3.Describe the purpose of mitigatory actions in a nuclear emergency. 4.Distinguish between urgent and early protective actions. 5.List urgent protective actions. 6.List early protective actions. 7.Describe mechanism of iodine thyroid blocking. 90

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 7.Explain the difference between evacuation and relocation. 8.Distinguish between informing the general public and giving instruction to the affected public during emergency. 9.Explain what arrangements for protecting emergency workers encompass. 10.Describe the purpose and importance of field monitoring in emergency response. 11.List three levels of medical response. 91

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS /cont. Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 13.Explain importance of triage. 14.Understand reasons for public concerns. 15.Describe particularities of radioactive waste managements following nuclear emergency. 16.Explain importance of mitigating the non-radiological consequences. 17.Understand the need for adjusting protective actions and implementing recovery operations. 92

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing emergency response operations Operator − Full authority for response actions on-site (mitigating) − Has to be able to transition from normal operations to emergency response without impairing safe and secure operation of the facility itself − Notifies off-site authorities, providing sufficient information Off-site authorities − Command and control over implementation of public protective actions Decision-making process to be − Well coordinated on and off-site − Documented − Well understood by all response organizations 93

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Transfer of authority Off-site authority in charge may vary, depending on scale, dynamics Limited geographic impact  Local authority If severity increases  Regional or national authority may take over This should be planned and well documented! 94

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Identifying, notifying and activating There should be clear and effective way for key response organizations to be alerted 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and to activate appropriate personnel and resources Emergency class − The simplest and the shortest message the operator can send off-site to trigger an adequate level of emergency response − Timing requirement: − Prompt enough to enable response organizations to perform their required functions effectively − Notification has to extend to neighbouring countries in which emergency response actions may be warranted − Countries within emergency planning zones and distances 95

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency classification Operator − To have an easy to use classification procedure − To promptly identify emergency conditions and − To determine and declare the emergency class Upon declaration of an emergency class − The operator and each response organization should take, without further assessment, their assigned actions for that emergency class − These actions are pre-planned and coordinated − The meaning of emergency class needs to be consistent for the operator and the off-site response organizations 96

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response The IAEA recommended classification system ClassDescription General emergency Emergencies at facilities in emergency preparedness category I or II for an emergency that warrants taking precautionary urgent protective actions, urgent protective actions and other response actions on the site and off the site. Site area emergency Emergencies at facilities in category I or II for an emergency that warrants taking protective actions and other response actions on the site and in the vicinity of the site. Facility emergency Emergencies at facilities in category I, II or III for an emergency that warrants taking protective actions and other response actions at the facility and on the site but does not warrant taking protective actions off the site. AlertEmergencies at facilities in category I, II or III for an event that warrants taking actions to assess and to mitigate the consequences at the facility. Other nuclear or radiological emergency Emergencies in category IV that warrant taking protective actions and other response actions at any location. 97

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency Action Levels (EALs) Declaration of emergency class is based on EALs EALs relate to: − Abnormal conditions at the facility − Security related concerns − Releases of radioactive material − Environmental measurements, etc. Classification procedures to be useable under emergency conditions Examples − Core exit thermocouples > 650°C  General Emergency − Containment monitor RM-09 > 10 Gy/h  Site Emergency − Spent fuel pool water level ≤ 10 m  Alert − Loss of RCS inventory control  Site Emergency − Containment pressure greater than 3.09 bar  General Emergency 98

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency classification vs. INES International Nuclear and Radiological Events Scale (INES) serves the purpose of: − Promptly communicating the safety significance of an event − Facilitate communication and understanding between the technical community, media and public INES is not a basis for emergency response actions − The emergency classification form such a basis! 99

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Taking mitigatory action Mitigatory actions for a nuclear emergency refer to immediate actions to be taken on-site: To prevent severe damage to fuel in the reactor core or spent fuel pool, preventing a large release of radioactive material To reduce the size of any release following damage to fuel To delay a large release of radioactive material following damage to fuel to allow protective actions to be taken 100

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response NPP states during an emergency During a nuclear emergency the plant can fall within following states − Design basis accident (DBA) − Design extension conditions (DEC) Operator has to be capable to manage DBA and DEC − There have to be procedures and guidelines in place − Emergency operating procedures – EOP − Severe management guidelines – SAMG − Personnel has to be trained to cope with such conditions and mitigate the emergency. 101

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Design basis accident (DBA) NPP is designed to withstand DBA − Without loss to the systems, structures and components necessary to assure public health and safety Operator expected to manage DBA, so that − No or only minor radiological impacts on-site or off-site − No off-site protective actions warranted 102

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Design extension conditions (DEC) DEC encompass accidents with significant degradation of the reactor core and with core melt DEC are based on − Engineering judgment − Deterministic assessments − Probabilistic assessments DEC aim to further improve the safety of NPPS through enhancing NPPs to withstand severe accidents 103

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Taking protective actions and other response actions Public protective actions − Urgent protective actions − Referred to as ‘precautionary urgent protective actions’ when taken on the basis of plant conditions, before or shortly after a release − Early protective actions Other response actions (which are not protective) − Provision of public information − Medical care − Psychological support and similar 104

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Urgent vs. Early protective actions Urgent protective actions − To be taken promptly (within hours) to be effective − Require prompt decision-making − Are used over a relatively short period of time (days/weeks) Early protective actions − Can be implemented within days to weeks and they will still be effective − They can be long lasting 105

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Urgent vs. Early protective actions /cont. Major urgent protective actions: Iodine thyroid blocking (ITB) Evacuation Sheltering Major early protective action: Relocation 106 Urgent and early: Closing off the area Preventing inadvertent ingestion Personal decontamination Restrictions on food, milk and drinking water and on commodities Medical treatment

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protective actions implementation Two possibilities: 1. Before or shortly after the release based on EALs (upon declaration of a general emergency) within emergency planning zones and distances 2. After the release based on OILs following performance of monitoring and sampling Effective urgent protective actions - there is an urgency and time constraint! Arrangements must be made in the preparedness stage − To effectively and safely take urgent protective actions − Factors such as availability of transport and effectiveness of shelters and other local characteristics and infrastructure must be considered 107

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Iodine thyroid blocking (ITB) Radioactive iodine can be released in large amounts Radioactive iodine accumulates in the thyroid gland Important health risk − Increase chance of thyroid cancer Young children and foetuses most vulnerable Protection − Take stable (non-radioactive) iodine before exposure to block the thyroid from accumulating radioactive iodine 108 Iodine thyroid blocking

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ITB mechanism Very simple and effective, if taken on time 109

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Implementing ITB Pills to be taken before or shortly after intake, i.e. within 2 hours Clear instructions to be given to population − When, what dosages ITB prevents intake from inhalation or ingestion − Inhalation = short term, geographically limited − Ingestion = long term, affecting larger population ITB not for long term protection ITB is for protecting of thyroid against radioactive iodine ONLY! − Other protective actions are warranted in parallel (evacuation, food, drink restrictions) 110

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response ITB in combination with other protective actions Inhalation of radioactive iodine in PAZ and UPZ can be sufficient to result in severe deterministic effects in the thyroid and foetus Sheltering or evacuation after start of release may not provide sufficient protection against radioactive iodine − They should be combined with ITB BUT implementation of ITB should not to delay evacuation 111

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Preparing for ITB For severe accidents − ITB more than few100 km from the accident may be warranted − Enough time to distribute pills that far and to effectively implement Pre-distribution necessary in the vicinity of the facility (i.e. within PAZ and UPZ) in order ITB to be effectively implemented − To be stored in homes, schools, workplaces, hospitals and other special facilities ITB mechanism implementation to be well explained to the public at the preparedness stage − To support effective implementation of ITB − To prevent unwarranted actions taken by the public − To reduce fear 112

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Evacuation Prompt evacuation (taken before or shortly after a release) most effective public protective action − If carried out safely − Prevents exposure from all pathways Evacuations are common, they occur quite frequently in conventional emergencies 113

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Evacuation after release may still be effective It protects against ground shine (important source of exposure) Evacuation at speeds greater than walking speed (~ 5 km/h), even during release, is more effective than sheltering If evacuating during or after a release  Monitor evacuees for contamination and as necessary decontaminate Challenges − Large number of people and vehicles to monitor /decontaminate − Effective traffic control plans − Equipment capabilities − Preventing bottlenecks during evacuation If evacuation is not possible right away  shelter until safe evacuation + ITB 114

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Sheltering People to stay indoors with windows and doors closed and ventilation turned off − Reducing exposure mainly from radioactive plume (inhalation and cloud shine pathways) and from ground contamination Sheltering in place − People to go inside, shut the windows and doors Sheltering in large buildings − Called substantial shelter, away from closed windows with outside ventilation shut off 115

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Sheltering – Simple to implement, but … TIME - People cannot be kept inside for longer periods − Sheltering is a short term action − Few days at most − Only if evacuation is not possible SUPPLIES - People do not keep extensive supplies of food − If more than a day, authorities need to take care of food, water, sanitation, power, medical support, etc. − Vital to keep people informed and to respond to their concerns EFFECTIVENESS − Large building sheltering can prevent lethal doses − Gradual air exchange between inside and outside occurs − To be combined with ITB 116

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Relocation Relocation means removal of people to avoid longer term exposure Based on results from monitoring using OILs − Relocation due to hotspots − Relocation due to essential food and water being too much contaminated to be allowed for consumption with no replacement Relocation is non-urgent − A week to a month to be implemented and still to be effective − Time is available to address personal needs − Providing for household pets − Gathering important possessions − Securing property − Providing for farm animals − Providing for evacuees’ needs as well 117

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Closing off an area Areas where evacuation and relocation were implemented need to be closed for the public! Authorities must have complete control over closed areas − Closing off to be publicly announced − Closed areas to be clearly and physically marked (e.g. roadblocks) Control points to be set up − Secure exiting and entering the closed off area including entry point for emergency services − Contamination control to be performed when exiting 118

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Prevention of inadvertent ingestion Deposited radioactive material can be a significant source of exposure Activities leading to an inadvertent ingestion: − Eating, drinking and smoking with contaminated hands − Children playing on the ground − Working in the garden, sweeping the yard − Other outdoor activities either for work or recreation Following actions can prevent and/or reduce inadvertent ingestion: − Avoid unnecessary outdoor activities − Keep your hands away from your mouth (do not smoke, eat and drink) − Decontaminate as soon as possible if contamination is suspected (wash hands and face, shower, change clothes) 119

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Personal decontamination People can get contaminated if they don’t leave potentially affected areas before release Radioactive material deposits on clothes and skin Initial decontamination: 120 − To remove outer clothes and wash hands and face or shower − Handling of clothes properly not to contaminate the premises − Discarding in well-marked plastic bags − Showering with mild soap, no harsh scrubbing

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Personal decontamination /cont. Skin contamination sufficient to cause severe deterministic effects (e.g. burns) possible only on-site − Further away from the site radioactive material gets more dispersed − Far away from the site significant exposure on the account of being contaminated is possible only from inadvertent ingestion pathway Psychological and economic effects − Large numbers of people can show up for personal monitoring due to belief they are contaminated − Effective public communication that addresses the need for decontamination too is necessary 121

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Restrictions on food, milk and drinking water and on other commodities Protection against ingestion of contaminated food, milk and drinking water − Restrictions applied to: − The source - the food chain and water supply system − Consumption - use and distribution of food, milk and drinking water  Rainwater and local produce concern within hours of a release  Milk within about two days, but urgent decisions are essential to prevent contamination of milk from grazing animals Protection against the use of contaminated non-food commodities Controls in place have to be communicated for reassuring the public − Certification can be an option 122

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Instructions and warnings to affected population Two aspects to be considered: − Informing public periodically at the preparedness stage − Giving warnings and instructions of actions to take during an emergency 123

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Instructions and warnings - For whom? Information should be provided to all groups: Permanent population (residents) Transient population (residing days to weeks) Special population groups (disabilities, minors, elderly) Special facilities − Schools − Kindergartens − Hospitals − Retirement − Nursing homes − Prisons and such 124

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Informing public periodically at preparedness stage Scope of the information to be provided − The nature of hazard − How people will be warned or notified − On actions to be taken − Emergency arrangements in place Disseminated as − Brochures − Leaflets − Calendars − Television or radio information programs Effectiveness of public information arrangements is subject to periodic assessment 125

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Warning and giving instructions during an emergency Affected public must be warned promptly − Provide them instructions on protective actions to take Warning options may include: − Fixed sirens − Centrally activated radios within homes − Loudspeakers operated from police or fire fighting vehicles − Door-to-door notification Even if no actions required, public still needs to be informed: − To reduce their concern − To prevent them taking unwarranted actions (note that public communication in general is addressed separately) 126

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protecting emergency workers Personnel from the facility − Employees who are directly employed or through a contractor Response organizations staff, such as fire fighters, police officers, medical personnel, drivers and crews of evacuation vehicles They are all emergency workers and they need to be protected adequately 127

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response The first step – identify and designate emergency workers at the preparedness stage − Will help ensuring they are adequately protected when needed (commensurate with their duties) Possibility some emergency workers may not have been seen as such earlier but may be required during an actual emergency − Register and integrate them within the response organization − Identify responsible organization for their protection Participation of emergency workers in emergency drills and exercises needs to be encouraged on regular basis 128 Protecting emergency workers /cont.

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Helpers in an emergency Members of the public who willingly and voluntarily help in response − They are aware they may be exposed to radiation Regularly seen during natural disasters but it cannot be excluded for them to volunteer to help in nuclear emergency too Register and integrate them within the response organization Identify responsible organization for their protection 129

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response High doses on a voluntarily basis Most response actions to be carried out within dose limits for occupational exposure Critical actions (life saving, prevention of development of catastrophic conditions, averting large collective doses) may lead to incurring higher doses They are to be taken on a voluntarily basis − Subject to informed consent To keep the doses of emergency workers as low as reasonable achievable − Managing and controlling the doses − Records must be kept 130

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Guidance values for restricting exposure of emergency workers Tasks Guidance value * H p (10)EAD T Lifesaving actions <500 mSv This value may be exceeded — with due consideration of the generic criteria in Table II.1 of Appendix II — under circumstances in which the expected benefits to others clearly outweigh the emergency worker’s own health risks, and the emergency worker volunteers to take the action and understands and accepts these health risks Actions to prevent severe deterministic effects and actions to prevent the development of catastrophic conditions that could significantly affect people and the environment <500 mSv Actions to avert a large collective dose <100 mSv E < 100 mSv 131

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Work in contaminated areas Must be planned in advance Besides external gamma radiation and inhalation, skin contamination major source of dose on-site − Inhalation and skin contamination can be prevented implementing adequate protective actions (i.e. using appropriate personal protective equipment) 132

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Arrangements for emergency workers All emergency workers − Have occupational radiation protection right and duties and need to be fit for duty Their employers have the responsibility and duties to ensure they are: − Qualified and trained prior to an emergency (‘just-in-time’ training for emergency workers not designated in advance and for helpers) − Provided with specialized protective and monitoring equipment − Provided with iodine thyroid blocking agent − Informed on health risk and subject to informed consent − Provided with medical examination, medical follow-up and psychological counselling, as necessary − Assessing total doses and communicating them to emergency workers 133

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Facility status and emergency radiation monitoring Starts with the emergency classification Detailed plant status − By using plant's emergency procedures and accident management procedures Robust instrumentation that withstands, for example: − High radiation − Humidity − High temperature − Extended measuring range 134

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency radiation monitoring Monitoring purpose: − To assess hazards − To assess actions taken and to identify a need to adjust them − To identify further actions to be taken Decisions for protective actions based on OILs Measurements may include: − Ambient dose rate and dose − Airborne radionuclide concentration − Environmental deposition − Food, water, and environmental contamination − Individual dose − Surface contamination measurements 135

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Generic guidance on emergency monitoring 136 PhasesType of measurementsObjectives After declaration of General Emergency Gamma/beta dose-rate measurements To detect major release from the facility During a release Gamma/beta dose-rate measurements (from plume and ground deposition) Airborne radionuclide concentration measurements To identify where gamma dose rates indicate urgent protective actions are warranted To determine radionuclide mix and measure radionuclide concentrations in air After release has ended or after plume passage Environmental deposition measurements Gamma dose measurements in the environment Food, water, and environmental contamination measurements Individual dose measurements To implement protective actions To determine deposition maps for 131I and 137Cs and other important radionuclides To identify radionuclide mix in deposition To control personal exposure and contamination To determine food and drinking water contamination To assess doses to the public To plan follow-up actions and early protective actions

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing medical response Medical response is necessary element of response Based on methods used for handling other types of accidents − Taking into account − Health effects of radiation − Contamination issues Medical response needs to consider: − Needs on-site: medical care for workers − Needs off-site: medical care for workers and the affected population 137

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Three levels of medical response 1. First aid on spot 2. Initial medical examination, treatment in a general hospital 3. Complete examination, treatment in a specialized medical centre According to − Degree of complexity − Necessary resources for assistance − Severity of consequences 138

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Management of patients In case of high doses (deterministic effects)  Specialized medical hospital for complete medical examination, treatments, and assessment of the dose In case of large number of exposed persons  Triage of persons TRIAGE = To sort patients into classes on the basis of their condition to expedite clinical care and maximize use of available medical services Contaminated patients may require decontamination − But decontamination should not precede the provision of critical medical care! 139

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Triage Individuals with symptoms of radiation exposure − Patients to be transported urgently to a specialized medical centre Individuals with radiation plus conventional trauma − Patients given first aid on spot, treatment based on nature and severity Individuals with external and/or internal contamination − Patients monitored for contamination, decontamination as required Individuals with potential radiation symptoms − Patients require urgent evaluation of dose Unexposed individuals with conventional trauma − Patients taken to general hospital, treatment based on symptoms Individuals believed to be uninjured and unexposed − Patients sent home, follow-up action may be needed 140

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Dealing with contaminated patients Conventional protection is enough when handling contaminated patients Care needs to be given not to spread contamination − e.g. use plastic cover in the vehicle in which the patient is transported Medical staff may be required to wear personal protective clothing (PPE) such as overalls, masks, plastic gloves, overshoes In some cases, medical staff may need: − To wear personal dosimeters − To be monitored for contamination 141

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Public communications during an emergency Public communication during an emergency is one of the important activities Public is very sensitive about anything nuclear − All nuclear emergencies are perceived as dangerous  immense amount of media, public and political attention Authorities to provide official information as soon as possible − Even though not much information may be known at the time 142

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response One voice Communication best if all involved speak in a coordinated and consistent manner  speak with ‘one voice’ − Assigning spokesperson(s) and holding joint press conferences − Coordinate messages from different key stakeholders: operator, utility, regulatory body, local and national authorities Or else, loss of public trust! − It may result in considerable economic and psychological harm Communicating to be timely, clear and accurate − To have public information material prepared in advance (e.g. templates for press releases, answers to FAQ) 143

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Public concerns During emergencies public is always concerned − Nuclear emergencies raise even greater concerns then conventional ones, ionizing radiation is almost completely unknown to general public − Messages from the authorities may be confusing and too complicated (e.g. containing technical data and information) − There are "experts" appearing in the media with their own explanations and detailed technical information There will be enquires from: − Individuals − Media − Non governmental organizations and other interested parties 144

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Unwarranted actions by the public Actions not justified by the radiation hazard and not warranted − May do more harm than good! − Can occur even if there is no release − People take such actions on their own in belief they protect themselves and others Examples of such unwarranted actions include: − Shadow evacuations − Unsubstantiated abortions − Not accepting products, officially cleared, from affected areas − Unwarranted closing school, embassies and other public buildings − Unwarranted medical examinations, etc. 145

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Addressing public concerns By giving prompt and clear communication in a plain, simple and understandable language − Public needs simple explanation of the risks and actions that they can take, or are taken by authorities for them and their families to be safe Public relation staff to have dedicated role to monitor media − To promptly respond to misleading, inaccurate or confusing Information that may need to be addressed − To identify unwarranted reactions by the public during an emergency. The IAEA suggests tools authorities may use to prepare to address public concerns placing the health hazards in perspective in an emergency 146

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing radioactive waste Radioactive waste is normal side product − Ranges from spent nuclear fuel of NPPs (high level waste) to contaminated personal protective equipment (low level waste) Major recovery and decontamination activities may be warranted in a nuclear emergency resulting in a large volumes of radioactive waste being produced − Can easily overwhelm national capabilities for its management Adequate preparedness to address waste management following the emergency is necessary 147

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Managing radioactive waste /cont. Radioactive waste with diverse characteristics − Radioactivity, radionuclides involved, physical, chemical and biological characteristics − Characterization and categorization to be carefully organized − Mixing to be prevented whenever possible and practicable Tendency to declare any waste generated in the emergency as radioactive to be avoided − Setting clear criteria and adequate characterization not to produce immense volume of radioactive waste Volume reduction, reuse and recycling − National guidance to support waste management efforts once emergency happens 148

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Mitigating non-radiological consequences Psychosocial, economic and other non-radiological consequences often outweigh radiological health effects Difficult to mitigate - primary related to perceived risk Emergency plans (on and off site) should − Recognize their significance and − Make provisions to reduce detrimental effects Measures to be considered − Informing affected population accurately and promptly on − Accident’s progression, risks involved and protective actions being taken − Keeping sheltered, evacuated, or relocated people informed of the expected time to return to normal − Counselling and informing emergency workers and their families 149

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Mitigating non-radiological consequences /cont. − Building public trust in the response organization − Providing means to reassure people about their dwellings, properties − Ensuring goods coming from affected region are not contaminated Long term programs − To avoid pressure on perceived risk − To establish in advance process and criteria for long term programs − To ensure that all involved are aware of actual radiation risks The system of compensation − To be outlined in the planning documents − Should consider benefits and long term social, psychological and economic effects − Should address tangible losses (e.g. evacuation costs, or replacement contaminated food, replacing lost incomes or contaminated property) 150

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Terminating the emergency Emergency stops, no on-going uncontrolled releases and no further ones are expected, facility is under control  Decision makers need to consider when and under what conditions to terminate the emergency situation and to:  Transition to long term recovery operations (i.e. existing exposure situation) and  Return to planned exposure situation It may be impossible to prepare a detailed plan in advance for recovery − An outline of a plan or a strategy to be prepared − Identifies the differences in authority, management and coordination between the emergency and recovery responsibilities 151

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Terminating emergency and transition to recovery Strategy to terminate the emergency and to transit to long term recovery operations may address at least: − The objectives for termination and transition − Responsibilities of involved organizations − The means of securing resources − Methods to justify and optimize the strategy − Mechanisms to be used for consultation of the public and others − Monitoring and health surveillance programmes − Principles and criteria for adjusting the protective actions implemented − Means for controls of restrictions to remain − Arrangements to protect workers and helpers 152

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Terminating emergency and returning to planned exposure situation Strategy to terminate the emergency and to return to planned exposure situation need to address: − Corrective actions to be implemented on the basis of analysis carried out following the emergency − Fulfilment of national legislative and regulatory requirements to carry on with normal operation, clean-up or decommissioning, as appropriate 153

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INFRASTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Explain importance of assigning authorities, roles and responsibilities. 2.Understands staffing of response organizations. 3.Describe coordination of emergency response. 4.Describe the system of plans and procedures. 5.Describe facilities and equipment. 6.Explain the importance of training and exercises. 7.Explain what quality management in preparedness is in practice. 154

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response INFRASTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS Functional elements vs. Infrastructural elements 155 What functions need to be performed What infrastructure needs to be put in place in support to perform those functions Plans Procedures Facilities Equipment Training Exercises Quality management

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Authority Authorities, roles and responsibilities should be − Allocated − Documented in national and local plans Conflicting roles and responsibilities need to be resolved Workable concept of operations ASAP Authority and responsibilities assigned within a clearly defined and unified command and control system 156

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Organization The same basic response organization for all emergencies − Rapid integration, co-ordination and expansion of the response − Covering nuclear and conventional emergencies (‘all-hazards’ approach) Emergency command and control system (ECS) with five components: − Command, Planning, Operation, Logistics, Finance/administration Small-scale emergencies  Only emergency commander may perform all components Large-scale emergencies  Each component runs separately Command transfer:  operator /first responders  Local official  National official 157

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Staffing of emergency teams For each organization emergency team composition should be defined and their roles and responsibilities identified − All team positions with adequate number of qualified and fit for duty people − For all shifts + some reserve − Always some people unavailable Non-full mode activations − For smaller scale emergencies

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Coordination of emergency response EPR coordination mechanisms must be − Established for any type of emergency − Effective and practical − Formalized − Within organization, between individuals and departments − At each level − Between organizations and jurisdictional levels. Especially for large-scale operations − With extensive resources required Coordination agreements − Between facility and off-site authorities − Notification protocols − Communication mechanisms − Off-site assistance...

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Coordination of emergency response /cont. Common − Communication channels, networks... − Equipment and − Units of measurements Agreements between municipalities or jurisdictions Harmonizing protective actions across the border − If emergency planning zone outside the accident country

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Plans and procedures All response organizations to have plans and procedures − Radiation emergency response is not daily work − People don’t know by heart exactly what has to be done − Effective system of procedures with outlines, checklists and reminders Challenge is large number of organizations − Need for coordination of plans and − Concept of operations Updating is important − Ensuring changes reflect in all documents − Ensuring all organizations work from the last version − Operational procedures revised annually − National plans on a few years cycle (e.g. after bigger national exercises) − Middle plans fall somewhere in between − Emergency preparedness committees are needed to ensure these

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency response facilities and locations Emergency teams, decision making bodies, support teams, etc., need facilities or locations to be stationed with communication, equipment, supplies: − Simple regular offices turned into emergency centres − Dedicated and equipped emergency centres Facilities located within potentially contaminated zone − Premises for emergency personnel to be protected from external radiation and airborne contamination − Protection against other external hazards may be needed Emergency locations, e.g. field monitoring base, medical triage base

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency response facilities and locations /cont. Reception centres to be established outside UPZ − To monitor evacuees for contamination and over-exposure − Designed to process population within that zone Laboratory facilities for sample analyses − Outside potentially contaminated zone Common emergency centres when possible − The same as for flooding, earthquake and such − For majority of off-site response organizations − NPP operator has dedicated emergency facilities 163

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency response facilities for NPPs Control room Technical Support Centre (TSC) Emergency Operations Facility (EOF) Operations Support Centre (OSC)

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Control room Operates the reactor Authority to take on-site actions within plant control room personnel until TSC and EOF are activated − Initiating on-site response − Declaring emergency class − Notifying off-site officials On-site Emergency Director  Shift Supervisor − Until TSC and EOF are activated 165

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Technical Support Centre (TSC) Accommodates the technical staff who assists the control room operators − Diagnosing and mitigating the emergency using severe accident management guidelines (SAMGs) Usually located close to the control room − Protected and shielded area 166

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency Operations Facility (EOF) Accommodates staff with primary responsibility for the overall response to the emergency, i.e. Emergency Director: − Central location to direct all off-site actions by the operator − Monitoring − Sampling − Dose assessment − Coordination with off-site authorities EOF is off-site facility, outside potentially contaminated area 167

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Operations Support Centre (OSC) Centre that accommodates the technical support personnel − Operational − Maintenance − Radiation monitoring Place where personnel rests and waits for instructions 168

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency tools, equipment and supplies 169 All response organizations should maintain suitable tools, equipment and supplies Lists may vary considerably and may include: − Regular office equipment and supplies (computers, printers, scanners) − Special applications for dose calculations, source term estimation … − Internal network and intranet, − GIS applications to map emergency data, − Monitoring equipment (measurement instruments, stations, vehicle kits) − Decontamination equipment, − Personal protective equipment, − Supplies for evacuees (e.g. water, food, beds and blankets), − Emergency vehicles, − Communication equipment (phones, radios, faxes)

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Communications A number of organizations involved  Good communication systems are needed − Dedicated − Reliable − Robust − Simple to use − With redundant back-ups and regular tests Common communication systems fail due to overloads − Both landlines and cellular systems Provide key players robust and reliable communication − Protected or direct lines − Satellite telephones have limitations with sensitivity − Microwave links are effective alternative where applicable − All main communication systems to be tested and contact numbers updated periodically

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Training, drills and exercises Essential part of effective emergency preparedness program Training and exercises held several times a year Substantial financial and human resources for off-site organizations Training and exercise program for off-site organizations to take into account − The role of each − Its critical needs for responding − Value of the training and exercises e.g. police forces may only need specific radiological training 171

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Systematic approach to training and exercises Training and exercises to be designed and carried out systematically on the basis of: − duties for all positions − competences for all parties involved System to track participation and outcomes Exercises provide unique insight in the state of preparedness − They are basis for continued improvement − Need to be well organized, professionally conducted − Their evaluation must focus on constructive improvement NPP: One annual large-scale exercise with off-site authorities 172

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Quality management programme Response organizations to establish comprehensive quality management programme that covers − Availability and reliability of all supplies, equipment, communication systems and facilities − Inventories, resupply, tests and calibrations − Maintenance, review and updating of emergency plans, procedures and other arrangements − Incorporation of lessons learned from research, operating experience and emergency drills and exercises Sufficient resources be available to regularly test all the above Testing to be carried out systematically with a continuous program 173

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Quality management programme /cont. Emergencies need to be − Investigated and analysed and − Necessary improvements identified and implemented Lessons learned with international significance − Reported to the IAEA − IAEA reports and other reports of emergencies to be reviewed to identify relevant lessons 174

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Emergency Preparedness Review - EPREV Internal and external auditing process to regularly verify quality management system is necessary IAEA offers to its Member States independent peer review of their emergency preparedness - EPREV EPREV can cover all aspects − From peer review of emergency arrangements at NPPs to full peer review of emergency arrangements within a State (at operator, local and national level) 175

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response THE ROLE OF IAEA IN A NUCLEAR OR RADIOLOGICAL EMERGENCY Learning objectives After completing this chapter, the trainee will be able to: 1.Describe the role of the IAEA related to emergency preparedness and response. 2.Describe the IAEA/IEC main functions. 3.Explain the obligations under the Early Notification and Assistance Conventions. 4.Explain the mechanism of notification under the Early Notification Convention. 5.List IAEA safety standards on emergency preparedness and response. 176

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Protection of human life, health, property and the environment in an emergency is a national responsibility! 177

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response THE ROLE OF IAEA in EPR Statutory responsibilities complemented with functions assigned under: − Early Notification and Assistance Conventions − IAEA Safety Standards in EPR − IAEA Policy-making organs’ decisions 178

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Roles of IAEA in emergency response Notification and official exchange of information Provision of advice and assistance Provision of assessment and prognosis Provision of public information Coordination of inter-agency response 179

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Roles of IAEA in emergency preparedness Developing EPR related safety standards, technical guidance and practical tools and providing for their implementation Assisting MS in establishing, enhancing their EPR and capacity building Providing peer review services, e.g. EPREV Maintaining IAEA’s in-house and inter-agency preparedness 180

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Incident and Emergency Centre (IEC) Within Department of Nuclear Safety and Security, IAEA Reporting directly to Deputy Director General Custodian of IAEA‘s Incident and Emergency System (IES) Global focal point for EPR World‘s centre for coordination of provision of international assistance 181

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Early Notification Convention State Parties to notify and provide information regarding emergencies with trans-boundary consequences which are of radiological safety significance for other States − Directly or through the IAEA State Parties to assign national warning point and competent authorities for notification and information exchange purposes IAEA maintains a list of these contact points and uses diverse means to promptly notify other states and international organizations and for official information exchange − USIE (Unified System for Incidents and Emergencies) being one 182

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Assistance Convention States to request for international assistance, in writing − Facsimile, email, USIE Upon receiving the request, IEC − Conducts initial assessment − Contacts other MS for offering requested assistance − Co-ordinates the provision of assistance Response Assistance Network (RANET) − Global network to facilitate assistance provision timely and effectively 183

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR IEComm 2012 „Operations Manual for Incident and Emergency Communication“ A manual covering communication protocols for Contact Points identified under the Early Notification and Assistance Conventions As well as protocol for users of the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) Intended for National Competent Authorities (NCAs), National Warning Points (NWPs) and INES National Officers 184

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR RANET 2013 „IAEA Response and Assistance Network“ Operational tool for the implementation of the Assistance Convention Facilitating cooperation between States, designated Competent Authorities and the IAEA Harmonization of response capabilities of States offering assistance under the Response and Assistance Network (RANET) 185

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Assessment and Prognosis during emergency Under the Nuclear Safety Action Plan adopted following the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident, IAEA has been assigned with the role, in a nuclear or radiological emergency, to: − Assess the situation − Make a prognosis on possible developments Aim is to improve the common understanding of the situation among international community 186

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Communicating of IAEA during an emergency Coordinates provision of information to public and media with States and other international organizations Issues press releases regularly Responds to media enquires Identifies and corrects false information Keeps staff informed 187

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response IAEA Safety Standards in EPR Hierarchy of the IAEA standards Safety Fundamentals − Objectives, concepts, principles - basis for requirements Safety Requirements − Requirements on what is to be done to ensure protection of people and environment Safety Guides − Recommendations and guidance on how to meet requirements 188

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response General Safety Requirements No. GSR Part 7 Establishes requirements for adequate level of EPR for any nuclear or radiological emergency, irrespective of its cause Uses ‘shall’ statements − Indicating what needs to be done Sets common goal, concepts and approaches in EPR − General requirements − Functional requirements − Requirements for infrastructure GSR Part 7 supersedes GS-R-2 issued in 2002 189

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response General Safety Guide No. GS-G-2.1 “Arrangements for Preparedness for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency” To assist Member States in implementation of selected requirements in EPR 190

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response General Safety Guide No. GSG-2 “Criteria for Use in Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency” Provides the criteria for implementing protective actions and other response actions in a nuclear or radiological emergency Gives new, comprehensive and coherent basis (criteria) for taking emergency response actions 191

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR Series publications Based on EPR safety standards To assist the application of IAEA Safety Standards in EPR More operational documents − Describe good practices − Give practical solutions, detailed methods − Informational in nature − Include numerous examples and templates of actual documents 192

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR-METHOD 2003 „Method for Developing Arrangements for Response to a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency“ THE book for establishing emergency preparedness and response from ground up Can be used to check for gaps or establish missing elements The book for writing emergency plans - gives very useful guidance and templates 193

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR-NPP Public Protective Action 2013 „Actions to Protect the Public in an Emergency Due to Severe Conditions at a Light Water Reactor“ Provides for effective decision-making on and implementation of public protective actions in a nuclear emergency Gives tools for effective communicating radiation health hazards in perspective in an emergency 194

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR-Public Communications 2012 „Communication with the Public in a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency„ Covers arrangements for communication with public in EPR − Provides valuable action guides and information sheets Targeted to public information officers 195

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR-MEDICAL 2005 „Generic Procedures for Medical Response during a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency“ Provides practical guidance to the medical community for medical radiation emergency preparedness and response Gives generic response procedures for medical personnel responding to different types of radiation emergencies 196

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR-EXERCISE 2005 „Preparation, Conduct and Evaluation of Exercises to Test Preparedness for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency“ Essential publication providing detailed guidance for preparing, conducting and evaluating exercises to test EPR arrangements 197

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response EPR- EMBARKING 2012 „Considerations in Emergency Preparedness and Response for a State Embarking on a Nuclear Power Programme“ For countries preparing to embark on a nuclear program − i.e. build their first nuclear power plant Detailed guidance for building adequate EPR based on milestones approach 198

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response Other materials and tools Besides publications, IAEA publishes other related material − Different emergency kits − Training material packages E.g. charts to place the radiological health hazard in perspective in a simple and understandable format 199

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response The IAEA Safety Glossary The last but certainly not least „Safety Glossary Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection“ To harmonize terminology and usage in the IAEA safety standards and other publications Where to look up for unknown terms 200

Basic Professional Training Course; Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response www.IAEA.org Get the latest information on the IAEA website www.iec.iaea.org www.iec.iaea.org Visit IEC website on Technical Tools 201 The views expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Commission.

Version 1.0, November 2015 BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and.

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Version 1.0, November 2015 BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and.

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Presentation on theme: "Version 1.0, November 2015 BASIC PROFESSIONAL TRAINING COURSE Module XVI Emergency preparedness and response This material was prepared by the IAEA and."— Presentation transcript:

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