1. MEIOSIS © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

2.  In humans, somatic cells have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes and one member of each pair from each parent.  The human sex chromosomes X and Y differ in size and genetic composition.  The other 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes with the same size and genetic composition. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

3.  Homologous chromosomes are matched in length, centromere position, and gene locations.  A locus (plural, loci) is the position of a gene.  Different versions of a gene may be found at the same locus on maternal and paternal chromosomes. Chromosomes are matched in homologous pairs © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

4. Figure 8.11 Pair of homologous chromosomes Locus Centromere Sister chromatids One duplicated chromosome

5.  An organism’s life cycle is the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation to the adults of the next.  Humans and many animals and plants are diploid, with body cells that have two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent. Gametes have a single set of chromosomes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

6.  Meiosis is a process that converts diploid nuclei to haploid nuclei. Diploid cells have two homologous sets of chromosomes. Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes. Meiosis occurs in the sex organs, producing gametes— sperm and eggs.  Fertilization is the union of sperm and egg.  The zygote has a diploid chromosome number, one set from each parent. Gametes have a single set of chromosomes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

7. Figure 8.12A Haploid gametes (n  23) Egg cell Sperm cell Fertilization n n Meiosis Ovary Testis Diploid zygote (2n  46) 2n2n Mitosis Key Haploid stage (n) Diploid stage (2n) Multicellular diploid adults (2n  46)

8.  All sexual life cycles include an alternation between a diploid stage and a haploid stage.  Producing haploid gametes prevents the chromosome number from doubling in every generation. Gametes have a single set of chromosomes © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. Figure 8.12B A pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid parent cell A pair of duplicated homologous chromosomes Sister chromatids 1 2 3 I NTERPHASE M EIOSIS I M EIOSIS II

10.  Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid organisms.  Two haploid gametes combine in fertilization to restore the diploid state in the zygote. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

11.  Meiosis and mitosis are preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However, meiosis is followed by two consecutive cell divisions and mitosis is followed by only one cell division.  Because in meiosis, one duplication of chromosomes is followed by two divisions, each of the four daughter cells produced has a haploid set of chromosomes. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

12.  Meiosis I – Prophase I – events occurring in the nucleus. Chromosomes coil and become compact. Homologous chromosomes come together as pairs by synapsis. Each pair, with four chromatids, is called a tetrad. Nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material by crossing over. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

13.  Meiosis I – Metaphase I – Tetrads align at the cell equator.  Meiosis I – Anaphase I – Homologous pairs separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

14. Figure 8.13_1 Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Sites of crossing over Spindle Tetrad Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Fragments of the nuclear envelope Chromosomes duplicate Prophase I I NTERPHASE: M EIOSIS I

15. Figure 8.13_5 Chiasmata and Crossing over at Prophase I

16. Figure 8.13_2 Centromere (with a kinetochore) Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate Sister chromatids remain attached Metaphase I Anaphase I M EIOSIS I

17. Figure 8.13_left Centrosomes (with centriole pairs) Centrioles Sites of crossing over Spindle Tetrad Nuclear envelope Chromatin Sister chromatids Fragments of the nuclear envelope Centromere (with a kinetochore) Spindle microtubules attached to a kinetochore Metaphase plate Homologous chromosomes separate Sister chromatids remain attached Chromosomes duplicate Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I I NTERPHASE: M EIOSIS I : Homologous chromosomes separate

18.  Meiosis I – Telophase I Duplicated chromosomes have reached the poles. A nuclear envelope re-forms around chromosomes in some species. Each nucleus has the haploid number of chromosomes. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

19.  Meiosis II follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication.  Each of the two haploid products enters meiosis II.  Meiosis II – Prophase II Chromosomes coil and become compact (if uncoiled after telophase I ). Nuclear envelope, if re-formed, breaks up again. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

20. Figure 8.13_right Cleavage furrow Telophase I and CytokinesisProphase II Metaphase II Anaphase II M EIOSIS II : Sister chromatids separate Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming Telophase II and Cytokinesis

21. Figure 8.13_3 Cleavage furrow Telophase I and Cytokinesis

22. Figure 8.13_4 Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II M EIOSIS II : Sister chromatids separate Sister chromatids separate Haploid daughter cells forming Telophase II and Cytokinesis

23.  Meiosis II – Metaphase II – Duplicated chromosomes align at the cell equator.  Meiosis II – Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate and chromosomes move toward opposite poles. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

24.  Meiosis II – Telophase II Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell. A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes. With cytokinesis, four haploid cells are produced. 8.13 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

25.  Mitosis and meiosis both begin with diploid parent cells that have chromosomes duplicated during the previous interphase.  However the end products differ. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic daughter cells. Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes. 8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

26. Figure 8.14 Prophase Metaphase Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) M ITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication Site of crossing over 2n  4 Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Tetrad formed by synapsis of homologous chromosomes Metaphase I Prophase I M EIOSIS I Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n2n 2n2n Daughter cells of mitosis No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II nnnn Daughter cells of meiosis II Daughter cells of meiosis I Haploid n  2 Anaphase I Telophase I Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I ; sister chromatids remain together M EIOSIS II

27. Figure 8.14_1 Prophase Metaphase M ITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication Site of crossing over 2n  4 Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Tetrad Metaphase I Prophase I M EIOSIS I

28. Figure 8.14_2 Metaphase M ITOSIS Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n2n 2n2n Daughter cells of mitosis

29.  Mitosis and meiosis both begin with diploid parent cells that have chromosomes duplicated during the previous interphase.  However the end products differ. Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid somatic daughter cells. Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes. 8.14 Mitosis and meiosis have important similarities and differences © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

30. Figure 8.14 Prophase Metaphase Duplicated chromosome (two sister chromatids) M ITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication Site of crossing over 2n  4 Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Tetrad formed by synapsis of homologous chromosomes Metaphase I Prophase I M EIOSIS I Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n2n 2n2n Daughter cells of mitosis No further chromosomal duplication; sister chromatids separate during anaphase II nnnn Daughter cells of meiosis II Daughter cells of meiosis I Haploid n  2 Anaphase I Telophase I Homologous chromosomes separate during anaphase I ; sister chromatids remain together M EIOSIS II

31. Figure 8.14_1 Prophase Metaphase M ITOSIS Parent cell (before chromosome duplication) Chromosome duplication Chromosome duplication Site of crossing over 2n  4 Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Tetrads (homologous pairs) align at the metaphase plate Tetrad Metaphase I Prophase I M EIOSIS I

32. Figure 8.14_2 Metaphase M ITOSIS Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate Anaphase Telophase Sister chromatids separate during anaphase 2n2n 2n2n Daughter cells of mitosis

33. 1. Independent orientation at metaphase I Each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at the cell equator. The number of combinations for chromosomes packaged into gametes is 2 n where n = haploid number of chromosomes. 2.Crossing over during Prophase I How does meiosis result in variation? © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.