1. The MENA region The region presents both similarities and differences with respect to its constituent parts. We will always have a ‘double-discourse’: the region and specific countries. It follows that: –Analysing it as a whole to identify shared traits and trends should not take away from ‘national’ specificity. –For example, centrifugal and centripetal forces characterise the debate between the concept of the ummah and the concept of the nation-state. This is a crucial aspect.

2. A shared past There is very little doubt that the region is treated and examined as a whole because of geography, ethnicity and religion, although this should not lead us to overlook the many complexities. –Geography indicates ‘clear’ borders with the Indian subcontinent, Europe, sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia. The region is identified as predominantly Muslim and Arab. However, there are significant numbers of non-Arabs and non-Muslims (i.e. Israel is part of the region, Morocco and Algeria have large Berber populations, large Christian communities in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon) –A sentiment of shared past and common destiny. However, local experiences differ quite substantially.

3. The concept of ummah The unifying moment for the region has traditionally been identified with the rapid expansion of the so-called Islamic empire from its heartland in what is today Saudi Arabia. The ummah (community of believers) seems to denote the primacy of religious belonging over any other ‘allegiance’. Being Muslim trumps everything else: the global ummah (Olivier Roy). Is this really the case? –For some it is indeed, as religious identity is stronger than national sentiment and citizenship. –For others, the importance of local identities should not be underestimated: tribe, clan, nation. Particularly problematic is the founding of independent nation-states with the attempt of state leaders to forge a national identity.

4. Enter the nation-state As a product of colonialism, the entity ‘nation- state’ forcefully enters the political,social and economic scene of the MENA. –British and French colonial enterprises divide the ummah. Was it ever really united though? –When they leave, independent nation-states are created. The ummah stays divided. –The tension between nationalism and ummah is one of the problems of nation-building: Arab nationalism is the driving force behind the anti-colonial struggle, but it fails to unite the Arabs under one political authority Local forces and dynamics prevail suggesting significant divisions.

5. Background matters While there has traditionally been and still is an ideal of Arab unity, this remains in the realm of mythologized history and continues to be a utopian aspirations. –Even when the Arabs were under one political authority, enormous divisions existed. –This has not stopped some political thinkers and activists to continue to put forth this idea of unity –Colonialism ‘simply’ makes existing divisions deeper.

6. Different experiences Oil –Some countries have enormous natural resources (Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Iran, Iraq) some do not (Morocco, Tunisia, Jordan). Poverty –Some have very poor social indicators (Morocco, Egypt), some have excellent ones (Gulf States, Lebanon). Conflict –Some countries have experienced brutal civil conflicts (Algeria, Lebanon, Syria), some have not (Tunisia, Egypt). Israel –Some countries are at peace with it (Egypt, Jordan), some are technically still at war with it (Syria, Lebanon). Islam –Some countries adopt a very tolerant version of it (Morocco, Jordan, Lebanon), some adopt a more conservative one (Saudi Arabia, Gulf States).

7. …and yet there are common trends Authoritarianism –Some countries are republics (Syria, Egypt) some monarchies (Jordan, Morocco, Saudi Arabia), some personal dictatorships (Libya). Only two countries in the region can be identified as democracies and they are NOT Arab countries (Turkey and Israel). There are two problematic Arab democracies however (Iraq and Lebanon) Rise of political Islam –All countries have experienced a growth of political movements that challenge the status quo by using the religious discourse even though more often than not they are led by secular figures.