1. G4 Conservation of biodiversity and G5 Population Ecology HL

2. How can environmental change be detected and monitored? Some organisms are sensitive to change in their environment. These organisms can function as biological indicators (biotic indices) of impending environmental damage. For example, lichens (and mosses) are used to detect air pollution – in effect, they are potential indicator species of environmental change. Mosses are also indicator organisms. (there is no protective waxy layer around them)

3. Eutrification How does eutrification occur?

7. Monitoring fresh water pollution

8. Red Data Books as listings of indicator species The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nature Reserves co-ordinates the updating of Red Data Books. These list endangered species, identifying those for which special conservation efforts are needed.

9. Dodo from island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean 1 Visiting sailors killed the dodo as a source of fresh meat to restock their ships. The dodo proved an easy victim, unfamiliar with humans (or other mammals). In fact, it had previously lacked significant natural enemies. 2 Later, settlers brought cats, dogs and pigs, and inadvertently, rats – all alien species which fed on the occupant of the dodo’s nest: the eggs and growing chicks. The dodo population numbers were no longer maintained. 3 Natural habitats on the island were deliberately destroyed as land was cleared for agriculture and the growth of introduced spice plant species.

10. Conservation steps include Designation and maintenance of natural reserves, In situ conservation versus ex situ conservation Botanical gardens and seed banks. Zoos and captive breeding sites

11. In situ conservation Conservation of organisms in their own natural environment The goal is to allow the target species to continue to adapt the conditions in the reserve without human interference and outside influence such as invasive species. Population of species should be large enough to reproduce * Sometimes it is hard to protect the species in their own habitat because of destructive forces can not be controlled or population is too small.

12. Ex situ conservation This is the last method to conserve species. There are 3 types. a.Captive breeding /zoos b.Cultivation of plants in botanical gardens. c.Seed banks

13. Captive breeding and zoos It seems a good idea to retain examples of species in zoos or aquaria so prevent their extinction. There are some problems with zoos. -Animals get use to humans and can not adapt their wild life -Expensive -We can not keep all species -There are some successful examples (condor in California and Przewalski’s horses in Mongolia) -Sometimes it is impossible to reintroduce a species to it native environment because habitat has gone. -Zoos are stressful for animals. (Artificial insemination, embryo transfer to a surrogate mother, cryogenics, human raised young, keeping pedigree )

14. Botanical gardens and seedbank Seeds are stored frozen and dry for many years. Some of them are international some of them are national

15. Conservation by promotion of nature reserves National parks are used to conserve biodiversity Also, for a given reserve there is an edge effect (compact reserve with minimal perimeter) There should not be geographical isolation. The protected area should be close enough to contact with other reserves.

16. Biogeographical features of nature reserve

17. Biogeographical features of protected areas 1- Bigger better than smaller, includes more species, allows bigger populations, more interior per edge. 2- Intact better than fragmented; larger singe population, no dispersal problem, more interior per edge. 3- Close better than isolated; easier to disperse among patches, allows easier recolonization in case local paths looses all individuals. 4- Clumped better than a row; shorter distance to other reserves. 5. Connected with corridors better than not connected; facilitates dispersal. 6- Round better than any other shapes; decreases amount of edges.

18. Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation. There are five key steps to active management of a nature reserve: 1. Continuous monitoring 2. Habitat conservation 3. Maintenance of effective boundaries, 4. Measures to facilitate the successful completion of life cycles 5. Re-stockings and re-introductions of once- common species

19. Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic nature reserves).

20. Read page 634 and outline the use of ex situ conservation measures, including captive breeding of animals, botanic gardens and seed banks.

21. G5 Population Ecology r-strategies K-strategies

22. Logistic Population Growth Exponential growth: population increases, enough nutrients space, high mortality Transitional phase: Natality rate start to fall, mortality increases. Slow growth: period of adaptation to conditions Plateau phase: natality and mortality rates are equal Time Number of individuals

23. Time Number of individuals (N) 0 K G = rN (K – N) K

24. Four factors interact to limit population size: – Availability of raw materials – Availability of energy – Accumulation of wastes – Interactions among organisms

25. Percentage of maximum life span Percentage of survivors (log scale) 0 50100 0.1 1 10 100 III II I

26. Discuss the environmental conditions that favor either r-strategies or K-strategies.

27. Characteristics of r-Selected and K-Selected Populations Source: Pianka, E.R. Evolutionary Ecology in Campbell, N. 1995 Characteristics r-SelectedK-Selected Maturation time Lifespan Death rate # of offspring produced # of reproductions per lifetime Timing of first reproduction Parental care

28. Characteristics of r-Selected and K-Selected Populations Source: Pianka, E.R. Evolutionary Ecology in Campbell, N. 1995 Characteristics r-SelectedK-Selected Maturation time shortlong Lifespan shortlong Death rate highlow # of offspring produced highlow # of reproductions per lifetime highlow Timing of first reproduction earlylate Parental care noyes

29. Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on a capture– mark–release–recapture method. Lincoln index

30. Describe the methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks. fishing mortality – the proportion of fish stocks taken each year during commercial fishing; spawning stock biomass (SSB) – the total mass of mature fish in the population; recruitment – the number of young fish produced each year which survive to enter the spawning stock; landings – the total annual tonnage of fish landed by the fishing fleet.

31. Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks. The maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of a stock represents the maximum average catch that a stock can sustain over a long period of time. reproductive rate and growth rate of the stock = and the deaths due to harvesting and natural mortality. Typically, harvesting at MSY requires much lower fishing rates than occur in many fisheries.

32. 1 Market sampling, in which the landings of fish are sampled to compile information on fish length and age. 2 Discard sampling, in which the mass of fish caught and then discarded is measured. 3 Research vessel surveys, 4. Using sound to monitor fish population 5. Calculating age of fish in a population 6. Using coded wire tag detectors

33. Discuss international measures that would promote the conservation of fish. 1 Total allowable catches (TACs) and quotas Each state receives a quota for individual fish stocks, reflecting levels of dependence on fishing. 2 Technical conservation (TC) TC measures provide a further line of protection for breeding stocks. These are rules that aim to make fishing itself more selective and so reduce the discarding of young fish. These measures: A. Set minimum landing sizes for different species of fish to discourage the catch of small fish; B.Require the use of specific mesh sizes in some circumstances so that small fish can escape; C.Require the use of separator devices as an integral part of the gear to prevent the catch of more vulnerable stocks; D. Restrict the type of fishing gear that may be used in certain localities; E. Close down some areas to certain types of fishing, either permanently, or for a part of the year.