1. Theories of Society and Social Change
Ch. 4 Society
Theories of Society and Social Change

2. What is Society?
A group of people who interact in a defined geographical area and share a similar culture
Similarities can be found across subcultures and ethnic groups especially in multicultural societies

3. Theories of Society Gerhard and Jean Lenski Karl Marx Max Weber
Social change and technology
Karl Marx
Society changes through conflict
Max Weber
The power of ideas shapes and changes society
Emile Durkheim
How traditional and modern societies are held together

4. Gerhard and Jean Lenski’s Theory
Sociocultural evolution: The changes that occur as a society gains new technology
Societies range from simple to the technologically complex

5. The Lenski’s (cont.)
Societies simple in technology tend to remain small and change slowly
More technologically complex societies support bigger populations, more affluence, and constant change

6. Hunter/Gatherer Societies
Defined by the use of simple tools to hunt animals and gather vegetation
A few societies persist today in Africa and Malaysia
They depend on the family and on moving around (nomadic)

7. Hunter/Gatherer Societies
The sexes regarded as having the same economic importance
Few formal leaders, social equality
Often ravaged by forces of nature
For example, the Sami Laplanders in northern Finland
Reindeer herders who often experience hardship and famine.

8. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
Horticulture: use of hand tools to raise crops; emerged years ago
Pastoralism: the domestication of animals
Today found throughout South America, Africa, and Asia

9. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
Could support a much larger population
Leads to a division of labour and inequality
Rudimentary government and military
See God as directly involved in well-being of the world

10. Agrarian Societies
Agriculture: large-scale cultivation using plows attached to animals or more powerful energy sources
Occurred in Middle East 5000 years ago
Larger population and food surpluses
Greater specialization and inequality
Men become dominant
Societies expanded into empires (the Roman empire an example)

11. Industrial Societies
Industrialism: production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery
Huge populations and increased communication
Anonymity and cultural diversity
Trend away from traditional families and towards schooling and various rights (reduced inequality)

12. Post-Industrial Societies
Post-industrialism: technology that supports an information-based economy
Great change in occupational structure to service jobs
Information replaces objects as the centre of economy
Worldwide flow of information affects everyone on the globe

13. The Limits of Technology
Poverty remains the plight of millions of people
Individual opportunities at the cost of community
Modern warfare could devastate the planet
The physical environment is threatened by pursuit of material prosperity

14. Karl Marx: Society and Conflict
Watch: Karl Marx (School of Life, 2014)
Marx’s key concept:
Class conflict: the struggle between segments of society over valued resources
In industrial societies, two social classes:
Capitalists own factories and productive enterprises in pursuit of profits
Proletarians provide labour for wages

15. Society and Production
To maximize profits, capitalists (bourgeoisie) exploit proletariat
Social institutions: major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet basic human needs
The economic subsystem of production determines all other social institutions

16. Society and Production
The economy (infrastructure) dominates all major institutions and defines society
Family, politics, religion (superstructure) control the proletariat creates “ideology” and
False consciousness: explanations of social problems in individual’s shortcomings, not society’s flaws

18. Conflict and History
Over history, new productive forces undermined old orders and new social classes gained ascendance
Initial human societies lived in primitive communism; shared chores & food
In the “ancient world” warfare was frequent and produced masters & slaves
The feudal world saw lords and serfs
The productive forces of industry created the bourgeoisie and the workers

19. Capitalism and Class Conflict
Capitalists and proletarians are engaged in class conflict today
Class conflict: antagonism between entire classes over the distribution of wealth and power in society
Class consciousness: the recognition by workers of their unity in opposition to capitalists and to capitalism itself
Revolution would occur when proletariat became a “class for itself”

20. Capitalism and Alienation
Alienation: The experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness
Capitalists alienate workers from:
The act of working
The product of work
Other workers
Human potential
As people develop technology to gain power over the world, the capitalist economy gains more control over people

21. Revolution The only way out of capitalism is to remake society
Socialism is a system of production that could provide for the social needs of all
Marx believed that the working majority would realize they held the key to a better future
The change would be revolutionary and perhaps even violent
Marx believed a socialist society would end class conflict
Ideal = communism

22. Historical Materialism: Marx and Engels’ Stages of History
Primitive Communism: hunter/gatherer societies: no extra wealth and no private property, social classes, class struggles, or even the need for government;
Slave societies with a rich ruling class opposed by an oppressed underclass of slaves;
Feudalism with a noble class of landowning lords opposed by an oppressed class of serfs;
Capitalism with a rich class of factory owners (bourgeoisie) opposed by an oppressed class of factory workers (the proletariat);
Socialism run by the workers with no private property, and thus no social classes, or class conflicts;
Communism: the ideal society, stateless and classless

23. Marx’s Methodology Detailed and meticulous historical research
Also based ideas on a survey of more than 20,000 workers, performed together with Friedrich Engels
Interviewed workers and compiled the data
Became the basis for 3 volume work “Das Kapital” written together with Engels and for his famous “Communist Manifesto”

24. CONFLICT AND ANALYSIS: MAX WEBER
Key Contributions of M. Weber
Theory of Society: change through ideas
Most famous for: “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”
3 Types of Political Authority: traditional, charismatic and rational/legal (bureaucracy);
Social Stratification: class, status, party
3-fold Methodology: comparative method, verstehen, ideal types

25. Max Weber: The Rationalization of Society
Rationalization: historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought
Societies differ not in terms of how people produce things but in how people think about the world
He was an “idealist” (Marx was a “materialist”)
Used Ideal type to analyze: an abstract statement of the essential characteristics of any social phenomenon

26. Weber’s Theory of Society
Main argument: human action increasingly formally rational over the course of human history.
Human action = individual meaningful, purposive behaviour
Formal rationality = careful, planned and calculated matching of means to ends

27. Theory of Society (cont.)
Formally rational action: to identify and use means that will likely bring a desired end
a dominant feature of modern societies.
Theory of Society: the study of individuals’ meaningful, purposive actions
individuals and their ideas, values and beliefs are the driving force of social change

28. Key Contributions of Max Weber
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (BBC, 2015)
Examines why capitalism developed in North Europe and North America
Argues that Protestant religion is conducive to capitalist development
Protestantism provides preconditions for rational economic behaviour

29. Key Contributions (cont.)
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism:
Protestant faith based on puritan asceticism (self-denial, self-control for salvation) encourages hard work, frugality and individual responsibility;
Money-making as part of religious calling;
History of religion has unintentional and paradoxical effects: Protestant ethic promotes rational conduct but undermines religious viewpoint in modern society based on science and technology.

30. Key Contributions (cont.)
Theory of Political Economy:
Agreed with Marx that economic activity is central in modern industrialized society but emphasizes politics as most important factor;
Distinguished between power and authority:
Power = ability to impose one’s will including the use of coercion to achieve desired ends
Authority = legitimate use of power to achieve desired ends with others’ consent
Identified 3 types of authority in human societies: traditional, charismatic, rational/legal

31. Charismatic Authority
Based on a great figure or personality e.g. prophet, warrior or political leader with extraordinary qualities and leadership skills;
Must be proven through successful victories and prosperity to the community;
Elitist rule based on direct authority of an individual vs. representation or participation of the masses.

32. Traditional Authority
Based on a dominant personality e.g. monarch or patriarch;
Legitimacy based on established rights and obligations within a social order e.g. monarchy, feudal system, household, etc.
Leadership based on custom, tradition and personal loyalty.

33. Rational/legal Authority
Based on impersonal rules according to a means/ends calculation, and not on rulers;
Dominant in modern industrialized society with formal rationality as guide to actions;
Bureaucracy as main force, creating universal rules and standard procedures;
Leaders as functional superiors or bureaucratic officials, office holders and managers.

34. Rational/legal Authority (cont.)
Characteristic of mass democracy but real power is concentrated in few politician-bureaucrats;
Bureaucracy as a form of domination, regulating different parts of society, and making masses dependent;
Pessimistic view: “iron cage” = bureaucratization provides social cohesion but undermines individual freedom;
Charismatic individuals as key to social change

35. Weber and Social Stratification in Society
3 Dimensions of Social stratification: class, status, party:
Class = economic position
Status = community identification according to social honour and prestige;
Party = group organization to either change or maintain social order

36. Weber’ Methodology
Comparative historical method, verstehen, ideal types
Comparative historical method:
Contextualize specific institutions or social actions and compare with same features in other societies;
b) Identify patterns without generalizing as laws of human behaviour

37. Methodology (cont.) Verstehen = understanding
To understand how people give meaning to their actions e.g. qualitative research techniques: participant/observation, interviewing, focus groups, etc.
To combine face to face interactions with reading scholarly texts;
Ideal types:
Refer to theoretical models/templates to guide understanding of key features of a phenomenon e.g. theoretical concepts: anomie, alienation, etc.

38. Rational Social Organization
Seven characteristics of today’s social life:
Distinctive social institutions
Large-scale organization
Specialized tasks
Personal discipline
Awareness of time
Technical competence
Impersonality
Bureaucracy would stifle the human spirit

39. Emile Durkheim: Society and Function
“To love society is to love something beyond us and something in ourselves”
Durkheim, 1924
Structure: There are social facts that have objective reality beyond individuals
Functions: Help society operate
Personality: We internalize social facts
Anomie: When society provides little moral guidance to individuals

40. Durkheim and Social Change
Durkheim built on the ideas of F. Toennies
Ferdinand Toennies interpreted modernization of society as a loss of community, or the decline of Gemeinschaft and the rise of Gesellschaft.
Durkheim stressed that modernization involved an increased division of labour (specialized economic activity, and a shift from mechanical to organic solidarity).

41. Evolving Societies: The Division of Labour
Mechanical solidarity: social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, strong among members of preindustrial societies
Organic solidarity: social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies
Division of Labour: specialized economic activity
Low in mechanical and high in organic
Modern society rests less on moral consensus and more on functional interdependence

42. Durkheim’s Methodology
Scientific sociology through the systematic study of “social facts”
Empiricism (through the senses)
Was a positivist

43. What Holds Societies Together?
Lenski: A shared culture and patterns that vary by technology
Karl Marx: Elites force an uneasy peace; true unity comes from cooperative production
Max Weber: Rational, large-scale organizations connect lives
Emile Durkheim: Specialized division of labour creates organic solidarity

44. How Have Societies Changed?
Lenski: Changing technology; modern society has enormous productive power
Karl Marx: Social conflict is now in the open
Max Weber: From traditional to rational thought
Emile Durkheim: From mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity

45. Why Do Societies Change?
Lenski: technological innovation transforms society
Karl Marx: struggle between social classes is the engine of change
Max Weber: ideas contribute to change
Emile Durkheim: expanding division of labour causes change